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Estrogen is a growth factor that stimulates cell proliferation. The effects of estrogen are mediated through the estrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ, which function as ligand-induced transcription factors and belong to the nuclear receptor superfamily. On the other hand, TGF-β acts as a cell growth inhibitor, and its signaling is transduced by Smads. Although a number of studies have been made on the cross-talk between estrogen/ERa and TGF-β/Smad signaling, whose molecular mechanisms remain to be determined. Here, we show that ERα inhibits TGF-β signaling by decreasing Smad protein levels. ERα-mediated reductions in Smad levels did not require the DNA binding ability of ERα, implying that ERα opposes the effects of TGF-β via a novel non-genomic mechanism. Our analysis revealed that ERα formed a protein complex with Smad and the ubiquitin ligase Smurf, and enhanced Smad ubiquitination and subsequent degradation in an estrogen-dependent manner. Our observations provide new insight into the molecular mechanisms governing the non-genomic functions of ERα, [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein plays multiple roles in transcription, replication, and cellular differentiation. HMGB1 is also secreted by activated monocytes and macrophages and passively released by necrotic or damaged cells, stimulating inflammation. HMGB1 is a novel antigen of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) observed in the sera of patients with ulcerative colitis and autoimmune hepatitis, suggesting that HMGB1 is secreted from neutrophils to the extracellular milieu. However, the actual distribution of HMGB1 in the cytoplasm of neutrophils and the mechanisms responsible for it are obscure. Here we show that HMGB1 in neutrophils is post-translationally mono-methylated at Lys42. The methylation alters the conformation of HMGB1 and weakens its DNA binding activity, causing it to become largely distributed in the cytoplasm by passive diffusion out of the nucleus. Thus, post-translational methylation of HMGB1 causes its cytoplasmic localization in neutrophils. This novel pathway explains the distribution of nuclear HMGB1 to the cytoplasm and is important for understanding how neutrophils release HMGB1 to the extracellular milieu. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]