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BACKGROUND: Global prevalence of hepatitis C virus (HCV) is estimated to be around 3% with approximately 170 million people affected. In Australia, and in many other resource rich countries, injecting drug use is the single most important risk factor for acquiring HCV, with around a third of diagnoses occurring in women. This study aims to assess gender differences in hepatitis C antibody prevalence and associated risk behaviours amongst a large sample of PWID in Australia. METHODS: During a one to two week period in October, PWID attending selected NSP sites are invited to participate in the Australian NSP Survey. Between 1998 and 2008, approximately 16,000 individuals completed a self-administered questionnaire and provided a capillary blood sample for HIV and HCV antibody testing. We stratified our sample by time since onset of injecting and analysed the demographic characteristics, injecting behaviours and antibody test results to determine gender differences. RESULTS: Women were found to be at increased risk of exposure to hepatitis C in all duration of injection categories except those injecting for 17 or more years. In the early years of injecting, women also reported higher rates of receptive sharing of needles and syringe and ancillary equipment when compared to men. Last injecting heroin, methadone or buprenorphine was significantly associated with HCV antibody prevalence amongst both males and females injecting for less than 5 years. CONCLUSION: Findings indicate that women are at greater risk than men of HCV infection during the early years of injection through higher rates of receptive sharing of needles and syringes and/or ancillary equipment. Our results suggest that women who are new to injecting, and Indigenous women in particular, should be identified as priority populations when developing and implementing harm reduction strategies that target people who inject illicit drugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an emerging pandemic and a critical threat to future treatment of even menial infectious diseases. AMR is transmitted between animals, humans and the environment e.g. through consumption of contaminated food. The risk to public health of consuming food AMR bacteria is difficult to assess, and the complexity of the problem renders most existing risk assessment frameworks of limited use for timely risk management. This study developed a rapid risk assessment tool: RRA-AMR-Food for regulators and policy-makers to evaluate whether any risk management is required when a new or critical important AMR-gene is detected in food. The tool consists of two risk criteria: risk of the food type, the risk of the AMR-gene, and two consequence levels: the short term individual risk and the long term community risk. The outcomes are two independent risk estimates: for short term risks and for long term risks, respectively. The RRA-AMR-Food is a practical and user-friendly tool for regulators based on scientific evidence and expertise. It simplifies a very complex system and is only useful for providing initial guidance for risk management and is not a comprehensive risk assessment tool. It may enable risk managers to identify high risk foods that need to be withdrawn from the market in order to protect consumers and public health. • Rapid risk assessment tool for antimicrobial resistance in foods. • Developed to support policy and risk management of AMR in food. • Assessment of both short-term and long-term risks to public health. • Qualitative rapid risk assessment tool for regulators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes an observational longitudinal study of cattle farms in England and Wales, which aimed to identify management practices associated with the presence of Eimeria spp. infection in young cattle. Thirty cattle farms situated in England and Wales were selected and one group of more than 20 young cattle aged 5-18 months of age was monitored on each farm. Three variables were identified as significantly associated with status in a multivariable model. The odds of finding Eimeria spp. were lower on farms that kept sheep on the same premises as the cattle, as was an increase in the maximum age within the sampled group. The latter probably reflects the development of post-infection immunity within the sampled animals. Good water-trough hygiene protected against Eimeria spp. oocyst excretion, with the odds of detection being higher on farms where it was reported that the water troughs were not cleaned and emptied more than once per month. The value of frequent emptying and cleaning of water troughs in reducing the exposure of calves to Eimeria spp. and thus lowering the impact of coccidiosis, both clinical and subclinical should be communicated to cattle farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Individual animal samples were collected from ten VTEC O157 positive farms approximately monthly over 11months to investigate the shedding of VTEC O157 by youngstock. VTEC O157 was isolated from 7.7% of the 6266 samples and 28.9% of the 1383 animals. On six of the farms VTEC O157 was isolated at multiple visits from several animals, whereas the remaining four farms had one or two positive animals at any one visit, with VTEC isolated from a maximum of four visits. A total of 92 animals were positive more than once (up to four sampling occasions) with a maximum of four negative samples between positive isolations. The results reveal a large variation in individual animal shedding patterns; the proportion of shedding animals on positive farms; and over time within the same farm. The lack of consistent shedding restricts the ability to target potential interventions to specific positive animals/groups or herds. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Studies have shown that water-drinking troughs are an important source of Escherichia coli infection on cattle farms, and a study was designed to provide farmers with an easy-to-use tool to monitor trough contamination and help determine when to empty and clean water troughs. A total of 164 water troughs were sampled on 33 cattle farms, and the on-farm turbidity tester results were found to be significantly correlated with laboratory turbidity results. Turbidity was associated with E. coli concentration, although the association was not linear. Emptying the troughs within a week of sampling was shown to reduce the turbidity score, but no linear association between time of emptying and E. coli concentration was discovered. A turbidity score of 4 was set as a cutoff point for when to clean a trough, yielding a sensitivity of 0.94 and a specificity of 0.03 for identifying a level of E. coli concentration that was more likely to contain E. coli O157 (>5,800 cfu/100 mL). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this laboratory investigation, Mars dust analogues have been mobilized by wind flow under Martian conditions of low density CO 2. Various laser based techniques have been employed to quantify dust mobilization and suspension; these include 2D laser Doppler velocimetry, optical opacity and optical reflectance. Direct mobilization of dust has been observed with a threshold shear stress as low as around 0.036 ​± ​0.007 ​Pa though only for dust layers of >1 monolayer and at a flux as high as 220 ​± ​100 ​mg/m2/s at around 20% above threshold. The dust resuspension fluxes for this direct process have been measured to be significantly lower (order of magnitude) than the mobilization rate, typically around 10 ​mg/m2/s at a shear stress of 0.15 ​Pa. This mechanism involved the removal, transport and breakup of dust aggregates. In another mechanism, saltating sand was seen to remobilize deposited dust layers <1 monolayer at a similar mobilization flux of around 50 ​± ​20 ​mg/m2/s and with a threshold of around 0.08 ​± ​0.008 ​Pa. At the high wind speeds used in these studies a significant fraction of the saltating sand grains become transported at relatively high elevation (>10 ​cm) and to high velocity. These essentially suspended grains were seen to generate a large flux of dust through impact abrasion. This constitutes a potential mechanism for dust generation on Mars, though is beyond the scope of this study to isolate and investigate. [Display omitted] • Direct Aeolian removal of dust is seen above around 0.04 ​Pa shear stress. • Saltation induced removal of thinner dust layers has a threshold around 0.08 ​Pa. • Fluxes for direct and saltation induced removal are around 200 and 50 mg/m2/s. • Direct dust resuspension involved dust aggregate removal, transport and breakup. • Sand abrasion causes dust generation at low gas density/high wind speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Detection and enumeration of Campylobacter spp. in broiler chicken flocks are key components of research and surveillance studies aimed at reducing Campylobacter infections in people. Direct culture of caecal contents onto selective agar is the typical method used to confirm flock colonisation. Modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar (mCCDA) is commonly used for this method, although alternative selective media have been used. Additionally, PCR methods to detect Campylobacter DNA from caecal contents may provide a rapid alternative. However comparative performance data for these methods is limited and therefore required to ensure optimal detection methods for this sample type. In this study, 306 broiler caeca were tested for Campylobacter using direct culture on mCCDA, Skirrows and Preston agars and two real-time PCR methods, one specific for mapA/ceuE regions and another for the flaA gene region. Additionally, the suitability of spread plating and spiral plating methods for enumeration of Campylobacter and the impact of sample storage were assessed. This study confirmed modified CCDA as an optimal media for detection of Campylobacter in broiler caeca. It was significantly more sensitive than Skirrows or Preston agars. This study also demonstrated that the mapA/ceuE PCR had excellent agreement with culture on mCCDA and is a genuine alternative method. Spread plating and spiral plating methods were suitable for enumeration although spiral plating appeared more sensitive for stored samples (72h). A 1 log reduction in viable Campylobacters was observed in stored samples, therefore storage effects should be considered for quantitative studies with broiler caeca. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]