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Forests harbor some 80 % of Earth's terrestrial biodiversity and play a crucial role in sequestering and storing carbon that is linked to their ecological integrity and biological diversity functions. Forest degradation—the loss of forest-ecosystem integrity measured by changes to native-species composition, functional processes, and keystone structures—is a major source of emissions and significant cause of biodiversity decline. Addressing this loss is critically important for fulfilling the Paris Climate Agreement and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Additionally, the United Nations (2021a) Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030 calls for a halt to both deforestation and degradation by 2030. However, many countries, particularly in the Global North, fail to fully acknowledge forest degradation as a problem within their own borders, and countries are not presently on track to meet the 2030 deadline. Building from established literature, we propose a principle, criteria, indicator and verifier (PCIV) approach that would enable monitoring of degradation at various scales, ranging from the loss of large, old trees to intact landscapes relative to reference conditions derived from primary, mature, historic, and semi-natural conditions. Degradation drivers include multiple forms of commercial logging and road building that alters native species composition, structure, and functionality. Case studies from three major forested biomes (temperate, boreal, and tropical) illustrate the geographic extent and types of degradation. We highlight an urgent call for countries to better detect and assess the cumulative damages of forest-degradation and to end it as promised. • Forest degradation is a major source of emissions and cause of biodiversity decline. • Degradation drivers include logging and road building that impact forest integrity. • Degradation ranges from loss of old trees to intact landscapes in all forest biomes. • No country is on track to stem degradation despite pledges and agreements. • Countries need to better detect and assess damages and end degradation as promised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Presents a typology of emergent risk that highlights the iterative and inter-related nature of climate change risk, and propensity for impacts, such as legal action and reduced debt access, to emerge subsequent to, yet far removed from, initial physical impacts. • Highlights current practice and gaps in local government risk management concerning emergent risk. • Highlights the potential and need for local government to consider, the application of risk transfer mechanisms such as catastrophe bonds in the face of historical and conceivable climate change-perpetuated reduced access to, and increased cost of, traditional mechanisms such as insurance. • Provides insight into barriers and enablers to local government agencies gaining an appreciation of the potential application of alternative risk transfer mechanisms. Insurance represents an integral part of local government risk management strategy. As climate change progresses, increased loss and risk related to extreme weather events such as tropical cyclones, could motivate insurers to withdraw from certain markets. In some regions, such a withdrawal represents an emergent risk that, when coupled with increasing populations and other climate change impacts, could leave local governments and ratepayers particularly vulnerable. This paper investigates such a scenario and its ramifications in the context of a region particularly vulnerable to climate change, through an exploration of the degree that consideration of emergent risks, such as loss of insurance, and the potential application of insurance alternatives influence Queensland local government risk management. The study finds little appreciation amongst government officials of emergent risk implicit in extreme weather events such as cyclones, little understanding of the nuances of risk transfer mechanisms beyond familiar traditional insurance and disaster funding mechanisms, and by default, a lack of appreciation of the relationship between the two. A lack of resource and leadership with respect to emergent risk, and an absence of dialogue between insurance brokers and local government concerning climate change risk arise as the main reasons for this result. This research is significant because it challenges current local government risk management practice through an exploration of the risks inherent in the process itself. This has potential social, economic and ecological ramifications in drawing attention to aspects of possible "uninsurability" and prospects of alleviation thereto. Further research is recommended to consider the insurance industry's part in this study's findings in order to inform current industry practice and thinking and further enlighten the causes of local government disengagement in this critical area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • An assessment of 54 national adaptation plans and strategies using criteria developed from the Paris Agreement. • Tracking adaptation planning at an international level can help guide adaptation planning nationally and support global-scale consistency in planning and action. • There is significant consistency in current national adaptation planning with a focus on economic development and growth. • Adaptation planning aligned to the Paris Agreement can encourage development pathways that promote synergies between environmental, social and economic goals. Abstract The Paris Agreement commits state parties to a global adaptation goal and the inclusion of adaptation into their National Communications. This requires national level planning, monitoring and reporting and methods for effective global-scale adaptation tracking. However, unlike mitigation, where clear targets and goals have been agreed, adaptation is a process with varied and changing goals and risk context. Assessing adaptation plans and strategies can provide valuable insights into ongoing adaptation policy, because the plans give good indications of priorities and institutional thinking. To assess how adaptation planning aligns to the Paris Agreement, this paper used Article 7 of the agreement to develop criteria and applied these to assess national adaptation plans and strategies available in English from 36 least developed, 8 developing and 10 developed countries. The results suggest that adaptation planning aligned to the Paris Agreement can help bring a different focus to development pathways that promotes synergies rather than trade-offs between environmental, social and economic goals. Importantly, tracking adaptation planning can help ensure the continued mobilisation of the parties, guide adaptation planning nationally and locally, and support global-scale consistency in planning and action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) addresses both ecosystems and livelihoods. • EbA-specific scholarship provides an opportunity to study adaptation constraints. • We identify six different classes of constraints in the current literature. • Existing lessons could inform future design and implementation of EbA projects. • Further theoretical development of EbA is needed as a research and policy issue. Abstract In the international climate policy arena, Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) has become the preferred adaptation approach to climate change in the least developed and developing countries. Its perceived strength lies in the premise that adaptation strategies need to address both ecosystems and livelihoods simultaneously, given these are crucially intertwined and both under a threat from climate change. While EbA has certainly made progress as an adaptation approach, a lack of understanding still exists how EbA approaches contribute to 'effective' adaptation, including the circumstances where they face constraints and limits. Furthermore, implementation of EbA approaches ideally requires a level of understanding about ecosystem structure, productivity and dynamics, and how these are affected by climate change and other direct anthropogenic stressors, that are rarely available in developing countries. This paper aimed to synthesise the current knowledge in the emerging body of EbA specific literature on the kinds of constraints that hamper the use of EbA. Our analysis examined the following constraints: economic and financial, governance and institutional, social and cultural, knowledge constraints and gaps, and physical and biological constraints and limits. The identified constraints demonstrate the complexities in developing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating EbA and propose significant further areas of research, including the need to provide well-documented case studies of EbA, which crystallise the main lessons learned such as practical challenges in designing and implementing EbA projects and research programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Formal protected areas are a critical conservation measure so long as their tenure is defined and secure and they are well managed. Protected areas in developed countries are assumed to meet these criteria and therefore have not attracted the level of attention given to the adequacy of protected areas in developing countries. We investigate this assumption using as a case study the southern temperate rainforests of Tasmania, Australia. We examine the extent to which these rainforests are protected from potential exposure to mining, commercial logging and climate change. We analyse the tenure of Tasmania's rainforests and identify the protected area categories that prohibit or allow mining or logging. We also model the potential distribution of Nothofagus cunninghamii , a dominant rainforest canopy tree species, to future climate and compare this with modelled current and future forest fire danger index. Results showed that 90% of the total area of Tasmanian rainforest (715,773 ha − 1 ) is in a reserve. However, the area of rainforest in reserves secured from mining and/or commercial logging is only 47% (335,863 ha − 1 ) as 43% (308,897 ha − 1 ) is in a reserve category where these land uses are permitted. The protected area category with the highest level of protection, prohibiting all mining and logging, is the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area which encompasses 325,920 ha − 1 of temperate rainforest. During a recent legislative review, 66,012 ha − 1 of rainforest in protected areas was downgraded to a reserve category that permits logging or mining. A key conservation instrument therefore is the Management Plan for the World Heritage Area as it overrides land use activities otherwise permitted including the 21,257 ha − 1 which is on a State-defined land tenure that allows for logging or mining. Climate change impacts, as modelled, suggest the main conservation challenges are in maintaining the integrity of the remaining intact rainforest blocks and better managing ignitions from lightning strikes and arsonists in the coniferous and alpine rainforests. Allowing structural degradation and fragmentation to intact rainforest blocks will reduce their capacity to buffer meso-climatic variability and resist fire events thereby undermining their ecosystem integrity. Noting that Aichi Target 11 includes the requirement that reserves are effectively managed, our case study highlights that assessing the effectiveness of a reserve system is not necessarily a straightforward matter as governance systems and regulatory frameworks involve a mix of international obligations, national and subnational policies and statutes, along with other agreements, administrative arrangements and plans of management, which can provide for a range of land use activities and be subject to modification over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long-term goal of containing average warming below the 2 °C limit requires deep cuts in emissions from all sectors. The fast growing global aviation industry has committed to reduce carbon emissions. Carbon offsetting is an integral element of the sector's strategy. Already, airlines offer voluntary carbon offsetting to those customers who wish to mitigate the impact of their travel. To ensure carbon offsetting can make a meaningful and credible contribution, this paper first discusses the science behind ‘carbon offsetting’, followed by the associated policy perspective. Then, against the context of different aviation emissions pathways, the paper provides empirical evidence of current airline practices in relation to offsetting mechanisms and communication. Building on these insights, the challenges of reducing aviation emissions and using carbon credits to compensate for ongoing growth are discussed. The paper concludes by proposing five principles of best practice for carbon offsetting that airlines can use as a basis to develop credible emissions strategies, and that could inform the sectoral framework currently being developed by leading aviation organisations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excess amounts of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) from anthropogenic activities such as population growth, municipal and industrial wastewater discharges, agriculture fertilization and storm water runoffs, have affected surface water chemistry, resulting in episodes of eutrophication. Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) based treatment processes are an economical and environmentally friendly solution to address the present environmental impacts caused by excess P present in municipal discharges. EBPR practices have been researched and operated for more than five decades worldwide, with promising results in decreasing orthophosphate to acceptable levels. The advent of molecular tools targeting bacterial genomic deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has also helped us reveal the identity of potential polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO) and denitrifying PAO (DPAO) responsible for the success of EBPR. Integration of process engineering and environmental microbiology has provided much-needed confidence to the wastewater community for the successful implementation of EBPR practices around the globe. Despite these successes, the process of EBPR continues to evolve in terms of its microbiology and application in light of other biological processes such as anaerobic ammonia oxidation and on-site carbon capture. This review provides an overview of the history of EBPR, discusses different operational parameters critical for the successful operation of EBPR systems, reviews current knowledge of EBPR microbiology, the influence of PAO/DPAO on the disintegration of microbial communities, stoichiometry, EBPR clades, current practices, and upcoming potential innovations. [Display omitted] • Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) is the most efficient way to remove orthophosphate from liquid waste streams. • EBPR microbiology changed from the mid-70s to the late 90s, Candidatus Accumulubacter phosphatis has evolved as a key player. • Several other potential candidate PAOs have also been identified in recent years. • Denitrifying PAOs (DPAOs) have been found promising, the engineering practices supporting their growth are still evolving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protecting forests is an increasingly essential and urgent priority to address the climate and biodiversity crises. These forests are home to communities, often Indigenous communities, who are facing multiple pressures including industrial extraction (logging and mining), illegal activities, as well as population growth and development, all of which drive land use change, forest loss and degradation. Addressing these multiple pressures requires integrated landscape approaches. Landscape planning has an important role to play in forest protection and conservation, including in areas of tropical primary forest in developing countries. However, resource and capacity limitations mean that planning activities in these contexts are often informal and nascent, rather than highly formalised in planning documents, and evaluation is limited. Robust tools to guide evaluation in emergent planning contexts can help improve planning processes and outcomes, and guide planners (community-based and otherwise) to choose and apply the right planning tools for the context. This paper develops an evaluation framework of principles, criteria and indicators for assessing informal and emerging forest landscape planning processes. The framework is designed particularly for stakeholders involved in forest landscapes planning processes with few resources and where formal technical capacity is limited. The framework will help guide and improve landscape planning for forest protection and sustainability. [Display omitted] • Integrated landscape approaches can improve forest protection and management. • Evaluating landscape planning is challenging and complex. • A principle-based evaluation framework supports flexible, ongoing consistent evaluation. • The framework encourages bottom-up, participatory evaluation and planning. • Evaluation can be tailored to specific contexts and technical capacities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We apply a method for forecasting carbon sequestration at the landscape-level, accounting for spatial and temporal scaling issues and develop formulae to incorporate spatial variability in growth and senescence functions. The effect of environmental variability was modelled by: (a) using a relationship between stand height at age 50 years and environmental characteristics; (b) adjusting the apparent age for different environments to reflect effects on growth rate; (c) adjusting age-dependent volume to reflect effects on potential biomass. Carbon sequestration for the next 250 years was forecast for a Eucalyptus regnans—dominated water catchment reserve in Australia; stand ages ranged from 20 to 450 years.In the absence of fire or succession after 2003, the total carbon sequestered in the E. regnans stands increased by 130(±65) t-C/ha (10.3%) to a peak of 1275(±130) t-C/ha in the year 2130(±50), followed by a net efflux of carbon. However, with fire or species succession, the mixture of young and old stands maintains a long term, stable amount of sequestered carbon. A gauge of the magnitude of the bias in the landscape-level carbon accounts arising from spatial averaging of the model’s input data was obtained. Comparison of results using different parameter settings for characteristics such as senescence and understorey biomass, revealed where more field data would allow both the timing and size of the maximal carbon sequestration, and the size of the ensuing net efflux of carbon, to be determined more accurately. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A study was undertaken to explore the relationship between backscattering coefficients from a Japanese Earth Resources Satellite synthetic aperture radar (JERS-1 SAR) image and aboveground biomass sampled at 12 field plots located in Murramarang National Park, New South Wales, Australia. This is the first such investigation in Australian Eucalyptus forests. From the field survey we obtained tree and coarse woody debris (CWD) measurements for eight forested, two paddock tree and two grass (effectively zero biomass) plots. Total aboveground and component biomass were estimated for all plots using allometric equations. Live aboveground woody biomass ranged from 0 to 610 t ha−1. The mean JERS-1 SAR backscattering coefficients for the field plot areas ranged from −12.4 to −7.0 dB. The results show positive linear trends between backscattering coefficients and the biomass components of dry Eucalyptus forest. The strongest trend was produced with small branch (2 cm) biomass estimates (r2=0.84). The biomass saturation level for the JERS-1 SAR data may be higher than estimated by other studies (possibly up to 600 t ha−1), although this trend was not statistically confirmed due to the small sample size (n=8). The results suggest that estimation of forest biomass for biomass inventories in Australia might be possible using satellite radar data when landscape characteristics such as topography, surface water, and forest structure are taken into account. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In Small Island Developing States (SIDS), water pollution is not monitored or assessed frequently enough to fully understand the processes, impacts of water quality issues and what solutions are available This study investigated flushing time in Erakor lagoon and Port Vila Bay, Vanuatu using a numerical model developed in Delft3D. Microbial contamination by Escherichia coli was detected in multiple locations in the lagoon system with counts exceeding thresholds related to human health concerns. Modelling demonstrated a poor flushing time overall with a further decrease as the influence of waves and wind increased, especially in Vila Bay. Sea level rise resulted in an increase in flushing time downstream of the lagoon near the open sea, while with a decrease upstream and in Vila Bay. Based on these results, we recommend long-term continuous monitoring and identification of higher risks areas to prioritise decisions around wastewater management. • Erakor Lagoon and Vila Bay have both high residence times. • Erakor lagoon is highly influenced by the waves, sea levels and the tidal flow. • Sampling revealed E. coli exceeding human health thresholds in Erakor lagoon. • Monitoring on a real-time would increase the capacity building. • The flushing time in Vila Bay is influenced by the wind but not by the dredging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Ecosystem stability, defined by constancy of canopy condition, is an integral property of old-growth and primary forests. • Forest ecosystem stability is characterized through remote sensing indices of canopy water-carbon relations. • No ground-based training data are needed to calibrate the stability metric. • Results are validated using independent high-resolution imagery and forest cover change data. • Monitoring and mapping of forest stability provide valuable information for conservation assessment and policy. Forests around the world are under immense pressure from human land use and climate change. Old-growth and primary forests have been degraded in recent decades, yet are generally more resilient and resistant to climate change effects compared to human-modified forests. Nowhere is this more evident than in Russian Siberia, which contains almost one-fifth of the world's forest area and has been subjected to a variety of land uses and disturbances since the mid-20th century. Although a number of related geospatial products exist, there are no large-scale maps of old-growth and primary forests across Siberia. However, remotely sensed metrics of forest stability have been shown to relate to old-growth and primary forests in tropical and boreal environments. Here we apply stability indices from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensors across boreal Siberia from 2003 to 2020. Our results indicate that forests in the central and southern taiga contain most areas of high stability, but also distinct zones of disturbance and low stability. We identified three regions with particularly low forest stability: (i) the Zabaikal region in southern Siberia, (ii) a portion of the central taiga spanning the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), and (iii) the West Siberian lowlands. This approach can be used to monitor Siberian boreal forest condition, and could be applied to other boreal forested regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiversity decline and climate change are among the most important environmental issues society faces. Information to address these issues has benefited from increasing big data, advances in cloud computing, and subsequent new tools for analytics. Accessing such tools is streamlined by virtual laboratories for ecological analysis, like the 'Biodiversity and Climate Change Virtual Laboratory' (BCCVL) and 'ecocloud'. These platforms help reduce time and effort spent on developing programming skills, data acquisition and curation, plus model building. Recently this functionality was extended, producing EcoCommons Australia—a web-based ecological modeling platform for environmental problem-solving—with upgraded infrastructure and improved ensemble modeling, post-model analysis, workflow transparency and reproducibility. We outline our user-centered approach to systems design, from initial surveys of stakeholder needs to user involvement in testing, and collaboration with specialists. We illustrate EcoCommons and compare model evaluation statistics through four case studies, highlighting how the modular platform meets users' needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban food systems are connected with several pressing issues, including urban population growth, resource scarcity, and climate change. To cope within these issues, urban food systems need to become more sustainable in their practices, as well as resilient in the face of extreme weather events. While scholars have started to investigate this topic, no comprehensive analysis has yet addressed what entails sustainable and resilient urban food systems. Through a systematic review of the literature, this paper aims to improve our understanding of the key components of sustainable and resilient urban food systems. This study reviewed 53 publications and identified components related to the health, social, economy, environment, and governance domains. Only 5 of the works included in the review discussed sustainability and resilience to the impacts of climate change in urban food systems simultaneously, so there is an opportunity for original research and analysis. The most frequently identified components of urban food systems relate to: access to healthy food; connectivity between urban and rural areas; having a strong local food economy and food production; reducing food waste; and, having active participation of all actors in decision making. There is some level of consensus on linking sustainability and resilience, but diversity in food sources and the development of social capabilities need to be emphasised for climate change adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in computing power and infrastructure, increases in the number and size of ecological and environmental datasets, and the number and type of data collection methods, are revolutionizing the field of Ecology. To integrate these advances, virtual laboratories offer a unique tool to facilitate, expedite, and accelerate research into the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. We introduce the uniquely cloud-based Biodiversity and Climate Change Virtual Laboratory (BCCVL), which provides access to numerous species distribution modelling tools; a large and growing collection of biological, climate, and other environmental datasets; and a variety of experiment types to conduct research into the impact of climate change on biodiversity. Users can upload and share datasets, potentially increasing collaboration, cross-fertilisation of ideas, and innovation among the user community. Feedback confirms that the BCCVL's goals of lowering the technical requirements for species distribution modelling, and reducing time spent on such research, are being met. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is considerable discussion about the relative importance of conserving high quality wilderness areas (i.e. large and intact landscapes) versus conserving areas with high biodiversity values. Places that are needed to achieve one aspect of biodiversity conservation are not necessarily optimal for another which can lead to conflict in assigning conservation priorities. However, both are important for biodiversity conservation, and carry social, economic, and ecological values. Investment in both (a) representation of elements of biodiversity (e.g. species, habitats) and (b) wilderness conservation is not only complementary but important for the long-term persistence of biodiversity. We develop two approaches to identify areas important for the conservation of biodiversity in terms of both wilderness quality and biodiversity representation, using Australia as a case study. We defined intact areas as sub-catchments with at least 70% or more vegetation that has not been subjected to extensive habitat loss and fragmentation as the result of land clearing. The first approach aims to achieve biodiversity representation goals in areas with intact native vegetation. The results of this approach would be extremely expensive to implement as they require a large portion of land. The second approach aims to achieve biodiversity representation goals anywhere across the landscape while placing a strong emphasis on identifying spatially compact intact areas. The results of this approach show the trade-offs between the economic costs of conservation and the size of conservation areas containing intact native vegetation. This manuscript provides a novel framework for identifying cost-effective biodiversity conservation priorities inclusive of wilderness quality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Coordinated conservation requires clear indicator interrelationships. • We analyse and interrogate global ecosystem indicators for coastal wetlands. • We develop spatially explicit typologies of ecosystem status at the global scale. • Typologies identify diverse conservation and management needs of coastal wetlands. • Simplifying the complex global mosaic of status informs management and conservation. Global-scale conservation initiatives and policy instruments rely on ecosystem indicators to track progress towards targets and objectives. A deeper understanding of indicator interrelationships would benefit these efforts and help characterize ecosystem status. We study interrelationships among 34 indicators for mangroves, saltmarsh, and seagrass ecosystems, and develop data-driven, spatially explicit typologies of coastal wetland status at a global scale. After accounting for environmental covariates and gap-filling missing data, we obtained two levels of clustering at 5 and 18 typologies, providing outputs at different scales for different end users. We generated 2,845 cells (1° (lat) × 1° (long)) globally, of which 29.7% were characterized by high land- and marine-based impacts and a high proportion of threatened species, 13.5% by high climate-based impacts, and 9.6% were refuges with lower impacts, high fish density and a low proportion of threatened species. We identify instances where specific actions could have positive outcomes for coastal wetlands across regions facing similar issues. For example, land- and marine-based threats to coastal wetlands were associated with ecological structure and function indicators, suggesting that reducing these threats may reduce habitat degradation and threats to species persistence. However, several interdimensional relationships might be affected by temporal or spatial mismatches in data. Weak relationships mean that global biodiversity maps that categorize areas by single indicators (such as threats or trends in habitat size) may not be representative of changes in other indicators (e.g., ecosystem function). By simplifying the complex global mosaic of coastal wetland status and identifying regions with similar issues that could benefit from knowledge exchange across national boundaries, we help set the scene for globally and regionally coordinated conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Global ecosystem assessments inform conservation funding priorities. • Seagrass, saltmarsh and mangroves are under-recognized in global assessments. • Ecosystem assessments often overlook important functions, like fishery nurseries. • Synthesis could fill gaps in data for global scale assessments. • We recommend priorities for filling gaps in global assessments. Vegetated coastal wetlands, including seagrass, saltmarsh and mangroves, are threatened globally, yet the need to avert these losses is poorly recognized in international policy, such as in the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals. Identifying the impact of overlooking coastal wetlands in ecosystem assessment frameworks could help prioritize research efforts to fill these gaps. Here, we examine gaps in the recognition of coastal wetlands in globally applicable ecosystem assessments. We address both shortfalls in assessment frameworks when it comes to assessing wetlands, and gaps in data that limit widespread application of assessments. We examine five assessment frameworks that track fisheries, greenhouse gas emissions, ecosystem threats, and ecosystem services. We found that these assessments inform management decisions, but that the functions provided by coastal wetlands are incompletely represented. Most frameworks had sufficient complexity to measure wetland status, but limitations in data meant they were incompletely informed about wetland functions and services. Incomplete representation of coastal wetlands may lead to them being overlooked by research and management. Improving the coverage of coastal wetlands in ecosystem assessments requires improving global scale mapping of wetland trends, developing global-scale indicators of wetland function and synthesis to quantitatively link animal population dynamics to wetland trends. Filling these gaps will help ensure coastal wetland conservation is properly informed to manage them for the outstanding benefits they bring humanity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]