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• Critical discussion of effects of lichen substances on macromycetes • Lichen substances cause varying degree of stimulation and inhibition of mycelium • Regulation of dynamic mycelium of different trophic groups by lichens in nature • The most inhibitory are common-grown epiphytic and epigeic macrolichens • "The light bulb extraction method" proposition for ecological purposes An analysis of data from experimental studies investigating the effect of powdered thalli, extracts and secondary metabolites from 25 lichen species on the growth dynamics of the mycelia of 36 species of macromycetes classified into different trophic groups (pathogens, saprotrophs and mycorrhizal fungi) is presented. Since various methods have been used to extract lichen substances, thereby preventing a direct comparison of results, a critical review was undertaken. The results of studies, depending on the adopted methodology of fungal culture and supplementation of active substances, indicated that natural ecological processes can be regulated by biochemical compounds from lichens and that they have a wide range of potential effects. Experiments have revealed that the strongest inhibitory activity against macromycetes is produced by Cetraria islandica, Evernia prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Pseudevernia furfuracea and Cladonia species, and those fungi most susceptible to lichen substances include, Gloeophyllum sepiarium, Macrolepiota procera, Paxillus involutus and Stereum sangunoilentum. Limited experimental studies on the effects of lichen substances on macromycetes that have been carried out worldwide may prompt more detailed research focused on explaining the role of lichens in the natural environment, particularly in forests. The conclusions obtained from this work underline the wide range of allelopathic effects which depend upon dose-effect phenomenon of lichen substances tested as homogenates, lichen extracts and individual secondary metabolites. They also show the role of underestimated primary as well as secondary metabolites as a mixture of lichen substances and their effects on ecological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing evidence that mushrooms (fruiting bodies) can be suitable for biogeochemical prospecting for minerals and as indicators of heavy metal and radioactive contaminants in the terrestrial environment. Apart from the nutritional aspect, knowledge of accumulation dynamics and distribution of elements in fruiting bodies, from emergence to senescence, is essential as is standardization when choosing mushroom species as potential bioindicators and for monitoring purposes. We studied the effect of fruitbody developmental stage on the contents of the elements (Li, K, V, Cr, Mn, Mg, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Rb, Sr, Ag, Al, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, Pb, Tl and U) in the individual parts of the Amanita muscaria fruiting body. Elements such as K, Mg, Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn and Se remained similar throughout all developmental stages studied, however for K, differences occurred in the values of caps and stipes, as expressed by the cap to stipe concentration quotient (index Q C/S). The other elements quantified, i.e., Li, V, Cr, As, Rb, Sr, Ag, Al, Cd, Sb, Cs, Ba, Pb, Tl and U are considered as nonessential or toxic (with the exception of V in A. muscaria). Their accumulation in the fruiting bodies and their distribution between cap and stipe did not show a uniform pattern. Pb, Sb, Tl, Ba, Sr, Li, Rb and Cs decreased with increasing maturity of the fruitbodies, implying that translocation, distribution and accumulation in stipes and caps was not a continuous process, while V, Cr, As, Ag, Cd, and U remained at the same concentration, similarly to the essential elements. Our results for A. muscaria confirm that elemental distribution in different parts of fruiting bodies is variable for each element and may change during maturation. Soil properties, species specificity and the pattern of fruitbody development may all contribute to the various types of elemental distribution and suggest that the results for one species in one location may have only limited potential for generalization. Image 1 • Elemental distribution may change during the maturation of fruiting bodies. • K was higher in stipes of mature fruiting bodies than in young ones, but not in caps. • Rb, Cs, Pb, Sb, Tl and Ba were higher in younger than in mature fruiting bodies. • Cu, Zn, Mg and Mn in Amanita muscaria show little change during maturation. • Patterns of Cd, Ag and As were similar to the bio-elements Cu, Zn, Mg, Mn, Se, V. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aureoboletus projectellus is a bolete native to eastern North America that has recently started to spread in Central Europe and is considered as a potentially invasive species. Maximum entropy approach implemented in MaxEnt was used to estimate the distribution of its potential niche in Europe. The model obtained and current data about species' geographic distribution in the European range were combined to predict direction of further dispersal and provide a list of locations requiring monitoring. According to the model, a continuous ring of favourable conditions around the Baltic Sea, together with a well-established bridgehead in Poland and Baltic states, make the expansion in this region virtually unstoppable. The case of A. projectellus constitutes an excellent opportunity for testing the utility of the employed model in practice and studying the dynamics of alien species dispersal process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Edible macrofungi are being increasingly cultivated as they are seen as a sustainable and popular food around the world. This trend is paralleled by the similar increase in the use of rare earth elements (REE) in consumer goods, which has raised the possibility of contamination in mushrooms. There is a growing recognition of REE as emerging environmental contaminants because of their occurrence in foodstuffs. Reports investigating REE occurrence in edible fungi have emerged over the last few years with some very recent data suggesting concentrations as high as ≤ 37,000 μg kg−1 dw. Critical assessment of some studies has shown that some of REE concentration data reported in cultivated mushroom may be compromised by deficiencies in the analytical methodologies. These reports are characterised by unusual occurrence patterns that do not follow the fundamental rules of elemental occurrence (The Oddo-Harkins order). The available data has been critically assessed for reported concentrations as well as occurrence patterns, taking into account the methods used for REE determination. The results indicate that a significant proportion of the data are likely to be unsuitable for the purposes of risk assessment of human exposure to REE or to evaluate any increasing trend of REE contamination in food. Reliable analytics are an essential tool in chemical studies in life sciences, and this approach covers both routine and atypical studies, such as experiments with REE in mycology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Amylases are enzymes that hydrolyze starch, and are mostly produced from microbial sources. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of utilization of wheat milling by-products for the production of amylases by a macromycete strain, Coprinus comatus , recently discovered as a potential producer of amylases under submerged culture. The best results of enzymatic activity (6.07 U mL−1 for α-amylase and 0.64 U mL−1 for glucoamylases) were obtained in a medium containing 10 g L−1 of low-grade flour (LGF) as substrate. The composition of the culture medium was optimized by experimental designs. The enzymatic activities obtained in the optimized culture medium (105 g L−1 LGF, 3.76 g L−1 urea and 7.52 g L−1 K 2 HPO 4) were 59.40 ± 0.56 U mL−1 and 12.65 ± 0.09 U mL−1 for α-amylases and glucoamylases, respectively, representing an increase of 9.78 and 19.77 fold in the initial enzymatic production. High productivity (0.59 U mL−1 h−1 for α-amylase and 0.11 U mL−1 h−1 for glucoamylase) and product formation yield on substrate consumed (814.28 U gds−1 for α-amylase and 231.24 U gds−1 for glucoamylase) were obtained in the kinetic study. These results show that the use of LGF medium represents a low-cost alternative for the production of amylases by the species studied. The characterization of the partially purified enzymes showed optimal activity at temperature of 50 °C and pH 5.0, in addition to the independence of the calcium ion, a desirable characteristic for amylases produced for industrial application. Graphical abstract fx1 Highlights • Four by-products of wheat processing were tested for amylases production. • The utilization of Low-Grade Flour substrate for amylases production is reported for the first time. • Increase of 9.78 fold in α-amylase production and 19.77 fold in glucoamylase production with the optimization. • High productivity was obtained in the kinetic study of the optimized bioprocess. • The amylases from C. comatus showed biochemical characteristics desired for several industrial processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cytokinins are phytohormones that participate in regulation of all aspects of plant growth and development, including response to biotic agents. Fungi of different taxonomic and trophic groups synthesize cytokinins, employing them for interaction with plants, both friendly and hostile. They also appear to be able to manipulate the host plant genes of cytokinin biosynthesis and metabolism to their own benefit. In this review, we analyzed the data about changes in the level and composition of cytokinin pool under fungi influence, the effect of exogenous hormones on the growth of fungi in culture and in situ , changes in the physiology and metabolism of fungi due to genetic transformations related to cytokinins. The possible role of cytokinins in the regulation of macromycete development is discussed as well. The pattern of cytokinin dynamics allow us to consider the hormones of this class as potential regulators of fungi growth. Further explore of fungal cytokinins is essential to improve biotechnology using fungi as raw materials for medicine and agricultural production. • Infected by pathogenic fungi or colonized by friendly fungi plants' tissues contain elevated levels of cytokinins.. • Fungi are able to synthesize cytokinins themselves and to modulate the host plants' hormone biosynthesis. • Cytokinins play a significant role in plant immunity and defence against the pathogenic fungi. • Cytokinin signals are an important for mutual interconnections between plant and fungus. • Cytokinins are considered as potential regulators of macromycete growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macromycetes are important for ecosystem functioning due to their role in the nutrient cycling, and their function as pathogens and mutualists. Diversity metrics based on functional traits are robust predictors of ecosystem functionality since they incorporate an evolutionary and ecologic background. We examined diversity patterns of macrofungi using functional trait-based metrics of diversity along an altitudinal gradient in a seasonally dry tropical forest in southern Mexico. Our findings show that: (1) functional diversity varies with elevation, relating more to climatic variables than to vegetation structure; (2) functional diversity indexes exhibited contrasting patterns, so measures reflecting heterogeneity on trait abundance and niche complementarity tend to increase with elevation, whereas the measure of trait evenness decreases; and (3) functional diversity patterns depend on the type of functional trait considered and how they respond to environmental conditions. Our results indicate that functional diversity analyses help understanding of how macrofungal communities respond to environmental variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Urban landscapes support a high and rich diversity often occurring as unusual or unique communities. Urban green areas are a vital part of the urban landscape, providing contact with wildlife and environmental services with additional socio-ecological benefits to the overall quality of life. The composition and diversity of vascular plants and macromycetes were assessed in an urban green area of the city of Coimbra (central Portugal) comprising three landscape types (Oak-, Eucalyptus-, and Olive-stands), with historical periurban agriculture and forest uses. We recorded 287 taxa of plants, including three taxa with important ecological value (Quercus suber, Quercus faginea subsp. broteroi and Ruscus aculeatus) and 96 taxa of macromycetes. The pattern of land use resulted in the establishment of different plant and soil fungal communities’ composition and diversity among these landscapes. The plant richness and diversity indices revealed similar trends within the landscape types, with the highest values found in the Olive-stands due to the presence of herbaceous that decreased with tree cover density. Richness and diversity of macromycetes were higher in Oak-stands especially the symbiotic ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungal communities. Although not significant, higher saprobic fungi richness and diversity values were found in the Eucalyptus-stands. Given the undoubted ecological complexity of urban green areas and the value of these ecosystems for society in terms of goods and services, it is imperative to select bioindicators that are readily accessible and reliable to design balanced urban ecosystems by linking wildlife and biological parameters to human well-being. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Studying a gradient of land-use history, closely neighbouring ancient and recent sites. • We directly compare indicator meaning of vascular plants and cryptogams. • We discuss the ecology of vascular plants and cryptogams. • Ellenberg indicator values of various species groups, including macromycetes. • Use of the indicator species concept. Land-use history and habitat age are considered highly important regarding the species composition and conservation value of, e.g., grasslands and forests. Ancient sites, i.e., sites with a continuous habitat history, are thought to be richer in rare, threatened, and more specialised species than recent sites. However, species composition is also affected by abiotic and ecological factors such as soil and climate parameters, and further analyses are needed to determine whether history or other factors are more important. In previous studies carried out at two study areas in the German Jurassic mountains, land-use history was identified as the main factor shaping vascular plant composition of ancient vs. recent grassland sites. Ancient was defined that there was a continuous grazing history since at least 200 years, while recent grasslands have developed from arable fields considerably after this time. Many species such as arable weeds and crop species, being residuals of the former land-use type, were found in the recent grasslands. In the present study, we assessed the terricolous cryptogam vegetation (bryophytes, lichens, macromycetes) of the same ancient and recent sites regarding species composition, occurrence of endangered species, and the applicability of the indicator species concept and Ellenberg indicator values. Although land-use history was the strongest explaining factor regarding vascular plant vegetation in previous studies, cryptogam vegetation did not reflect this signal. Species numbers and Ellenberg indicator values were quite similar in ancient and recent grasslands but we could, nevertheless, identify indicator species for both grassland types, with Rhytidium rugosum , Cladonia furcata ssp. subrangiformis and Hygrocybe persistens as strongest indicators of ancient grasslands, and Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus as strongest indicator of recent grasslands. When we compared the results for vascular plant and cryptogam vegetation we found that land-use history seems to have much less influence on the composition of the cryptogam vegetation in grasslands, given a certain time of recreation and succession. This is very likely due to an enhanced dispersability of cryptogam propagules. We found rare and endangered cryptogam species in ancient and recent sites; therefore, species maintenance measures can be worthwile in both grassland types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]