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We present the plant macroremains from the site of Vadnagar, an important centre of Buddhist learning in western India spanned between first century BCE and fourth century CE. The cultural relics and AMS dates of the recovered carbonized seeds from the cultural horizon also confirm the archaeological context. The study indicate that the likely staples were cereals (Oryza sativa , Hordeum vulgare , Triticum aestivum), leguminous crops (Vigna unguiculata, Vigna radiata, Vigna mungo, and Macrotyloma uniflorum), and oil and fibre-yielding (Linum usitatissimum and Gossypium sp.) crops. In addition, there is an evidence that fruits such as Tamarindus indica and Ziziphus sp. may have been consumed by the settlers. Few weeds and wild taxa (Paspalum scrobiculatum , Vicia sp., and Ipomoea sp.), which turned up as an admixture with the above economically important seeds/grains have also been encountered. Abundance of Oryza sativa (rice) grains and spikelet bases indicate crop-processing at the site and played significant role in the subsistence economy. Moreover, the overall assemblage of summer and winter crops suggests the prevalence of multi-cropping system attributed to conducive environmental conditions during ~100 BCE–400 CE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present archaeobotanical data based on plant macroremains obtained from three archaeological sites in the Ganga Plain. The paper provides insight into a range of taxa exploited by early inhabitants of different cultural occupations spanning from about beginning of 3rd millennium BC to 2nd century BC and also for the change in plant use over time. The evidence denotes a highly developed state of arable agriculture, which requires foresightedness and planning. The principal cultivated cereals were Oryza sativa , Hordeum vulgare , Triticum aestivum/durum , Triticum sphaerococcum followed by few African ( Eleusine coracana , Sorghum bicolor ) and indigenous ( Paspalum scrobiculatum , Panicum sp.) millets. While there is continuity in the agricultural pattern in time and space however, certain changes do seem in diversification of plant use during Iron Age. The record of Sesamum indicum , Brassica juncea , Carthamus tinctorius , Linum usitatissimum , Gossypium arboreum / herbaceum and Cannabis sativa emphasize the importance of oeliferous crops and textile production. Finds of Vitis vinifera , Vigna unguiculata , Luffa cylindrica , Allium cepa , Nigella sativa , Murraya koenighii and Ziziphus mauritiana along with Phoenix sp., Terminalia chebula , Terminalia bellerica , Emblica officinalis , and Crataeva sp., suggest horticultural practices and highly advanced medicinal system was in vogue during 1st millennium BC. Among the weeds and wild taxa, some are from cultivated field, moist places, ditches and some from fallow land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high number industrial hearths, furnaces, and kilns were excavated from an Indus archaeological site 4MSR (western Rajasthan, India) on the dry bed of Ghaggar-Hakra (erstwhile Saraswati) river channel near India-Pakistan international border, providing numerous artifacts of Indus metallurgical activity (jewellery items made of Copper (Cu), Gold (Au) and Silver (Ag), anvil, fishhook, arrowhead, spearhead, moulds, slag etc.). Array of inter-connected hearths, vats, range of stone weights and beads made of semi-precious stones (steatite, terracotta, paste) further suggest the site was being used as a metal-craft factory. Nine 14C ages (seven AMS and two conventional) from cultural layers provided site occupational history spanning from the early Harappan phase to the termination of the mature phase. Maximum number of industrial hearths and furnaces were found during the mature phase (2341 ± 30 to 1691 ± 100 BCE). Highly enriched magnetic susceptibilities (χ lf : 114 ± 61.2 × 10−8m3kg−1) in the industrial hearths indicate intense burning activities at these metallurgical factory. Similar enrichments were seen in hearth-sediments for Sulfur (S), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr) and Phosphorous (P) contents. Transition elements viz. Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) and Lead (Pb) were significantly enriched in these hearths possibly as major leftovers of the Harappan metallurgical activities. High S contents found in industrial hearths could be due to usage of Sulfur rich material used for metal-works and usage of gypsum for polishing metal ware and floors. Excesses of Calcium (Ca) and Strontium (Sr) could be due to enhanced usage of river-shells used in ornaments and bead making, while elevated Phosphorous (P) contents might be due to presence of charred bones of cattle, tortoise and fish. • Array of industrial hearths found in archaeological excavation of the western Rajasthan. • Majority of hearths belonged to the Mature phase of Indus culture ~2600 to ~1800 BCE. • Mature phase hearths and sediments were characterized by enriched magnetic susceptibility (χlf), Cu, Au, Ag, Pt, Pb, As and S. • Hearths of Early phase (~2900–~2600 BCE) display no metal enrichments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several hypotheses have been proposed to solve the conundrum of the cause of transition of Harappan civilization to a de-urbanized form in its Late Phase. In view of this, high-resolution off-site palaeoclimatic records along with archaeological findings provide strong evidence of an abrupt climate change ∼4000 yr BP (before present) that coincides with the civilization's cultural transition. The present study investigates whether this climatic shift recorded in palaeoclimate archives (speleothem, lake and marine sediments) at remote locations can be traced to the human settlements of Harappan civilization. This was accomplished by analyzing the remains of rice cereal-a highly water sensitive crop. The analysis involved measuring carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions (δ13C, δ15N) of well-preserved rice grains recovered from archaeological sites belonging to the Harappan civilization and other contemporary regional cultures, representing the time windows between 4520 and 3400 yr BP. The parameter of intrinsic water use efficiency (WUE i) was used as an index for water availability in the rice crop's growth environment and was ascertained based on δ13C values measured in the bulk grain organic matter (OM). The observed WUE i values ranged between 49 and 69 μmol mol−1 and captured the variation in water availability. The δ15N values ranged from 5‰ to 6.5‰, thereby allowing us to confirm the role of climate in controlling δ13C variation in the archaeological grains. The present findings will extend the usage of archaeobotanical cereal remains to deduce environmental changes at human settlements and will further our understanding of the process of Harappan cultural adaptation in response to decline in southwest monsoon at the Middle-Late Holocene boundary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An assessment of palynofacies and sediment data from a core sampled at Harshad estuary, Saurashtra, Gujarat, India was carried out for palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic reconstruction. Drawing on these data we evaluate their relation to cultural/economic changes during the early to late Harappan phases in the peripheral zone of southwest monsoon. Between ca. 5400-5100 yr BP, palynofacies and sediment particle size indicated a high terrestrial influx, interpreted as a period of higher monsoon precipitation. These proxies then indicated a protracted period of diminished freshwater inundation between ca. 5100-1400 yr BP. At the start of this period, archaeobotanical evidence from studied sites in the region also shows the shift in cropping pattern from large grain winter cereals during the Urban Harappan phases to millet based agriculture during the Post-Urban phase, indicating human adaptation in response to climate change. These strategies also appeared contingent on the geographic niche and site type, size and density. The Harshad core from 1400 yr BP to recent times also demonstrates fluctuating precipitation proxies between lower and higher values which may broadly correspond to climate events such as the Medieval Climate Optimum (MCO) and Little Ice Age (LIA), as well reflecting increasing anthropogenic pressures impacting the depositional environment of the estuary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increase in grain/seed size recurrently features as a key element in the ‘domestication syndrome’ of plants ( cf . Zohary and Hopf 2000; Fuller et al. 2014). In the context of its spread across Eurasia, however, the grain size of one of the world's major crop species underwent a substantial reduction. Between the fifth and second millennia BC, the grain length in a number of species of Triticum , collectively known as free-threshing wheat, decreased by around 30%. In order to understand and help account for this trend, we have obtained direct radiocarbon measurements from 51 charred wheat grains and measured the dimensions of several hundred grains from Asia to establish when and where that size diminution occurred. Our results indicate that the pace of a eastward/southward spread was interrupted around 1800 BC on the borders of the distinct culinary zone recognized by Fuller and Rowlands (2011), but regained pace around 200–300 years later in central-east China with a diminished grain size. We interpret this as evidence of a period of active crop selection to suit culinary needs, and consider whether it constitutes a distinct episode in the general character of genetic intervention in domesticated species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]