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Thrombosis is a clear risk when any foreign material is in contact with the bloodstream. Here we propose an immunohistological stain-based model for non-enzymatic clot formation that enables a facile screen for the thrombogenicity of blood-contacting materials. We exposed polymers with different surface chemistries to protease-free human fibrinogen. We observed that on hydrophilic surfaces, fibrinogen is adsorbed via αC regions, while the γ400-411 platelet-binding dodecapeptide on the D region becomes exposed, and fibrinogen fibers do not form. In contrast, fibrinogen is adsorbed on hydrophobic surfaces via the relatively hydrophobic D and E regions, exposing the αC regions while rendering the γ400-411 inaccessible. Fibrinogen adsorbed on hydrophobic surfaces is thus able to recruit other fibrinogen molecules through αC regions and polymerize into large fibrinogen fibers, similar to those formed in vivo in the presence of thrombin. Moreover, the γ400-411 is available only on the large fibers not elsewhere throughout the hydrophobic surface after fibrinogen fiber formation. When these surfaces were exposed to gel-sieved platelets or platelet rich plasma, a uniform monolayer of platelets, which appeared to be activated, was observed on the hydrophilic surfaces. In contrast, large agglomerates of platelets were clustered on fibers on the hydrophobic surfaces, resembling small nucleating thrombi. Endothelial cells were also able to adhere to the monomeric coating of fibrinogen on hydrophobic surfaces. These observations reveal that the extent and type of fibrinogen adsorption, as well as the propensity of adsorbed fibrinogen to bind platelets, may be modulated by careful selection of surface chemistry. Statements of Significance Thrombosis is a well-known side effect of the introduction of foreign materials into the bloodstream, as might exist in medical devices including but not limited to stents, valves, and intravascular catheters. Despite many reported studies, the body’s response to foreign materials in contact with the blood remains poorly understood. Current preventive methods consist of drug eluting coatings on the devices or the systemic administration of standard anticoagulants. Here we present a potential mechanism by which surface chemistry can affects fibrinogen conformation and thus affects platelet adhesion and consequently thrombus formation. Our findings suggest a possible coating which enables endothelial cell adhesion while preventing platelet adhesion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wound healing proceeds via fibroblast migration along three dimensional fibrillar substrates with multiple angles between fibers. We have developed a technique for preparation of three dimensional fibrillar scaffolds with where the fiber diameters and the angles between adjacent fiber layers could be precisely controlled. Using the agarose droplet method we were able to make accurate determinations of the dependence of the migration speed, focal adhesion distribution, and nuclear deformation on the fiber diameter, fiber spacing, and angle between adjacent fiber layers. We found that on oriented single fiber layers, whose diameters exceeded 1 μm, large focal adhesion complexes formed in a linear arrangement along the fiber axis and cell motion was highly correlated. On multi layered scaffolds most of the focal adhesion sites reformed at the junction points and the migration speed was determined by the angle between adjacent fiber layers, which followed a parabolic function with a minimum at 30°. On these surfaces we observed a 25% increase in the number of focal adhesion points and a similar decrease in the degree of nuclear deformation, both phenomena associated with decreased mobility. These results underscore the importance of substrate morphology on the en-mass migration dynamics. Statement of Significance En-mass fibroblast migration is an essential component of the wound healing process which can determine rate and scar formation. Yet, most publications on this topic have focused on single cell functions. Here we describe a new apparatus where we designed three dimensional fibrillar scaffolds with well controlled angles between junction points and highly oriented fiber geometries. We show that the motion of fibroblasts undergoing en-mass migration on these scaffolds can be controlled by the substrate topography. Significant differences in cell morphology and focal adhesions was found to exist between cells migrating on flat versus fibrillar scaffolds where the migration speed was found to be a function of the angle between fibers, the fiber diameter, and the distance between fibers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Almost for two decades metallic nanoparticles are successfully used for cancer detection, imaging and treatment. Due to their high electron density they can be easily observed by electron microscopy and used in laser and radiofrequency therapy as energy releasing agents. However, the limitation for this practice is an inability to generate tumor-specific heating in a minimally invasive manner to the healthy tissue. To overcome this restraint we proposed to use folic acid coated metallic nanoparticles and determine whether they preferentially penetrate cancer cells. We developed technique for synthesizing platinum nanoparticles using folic acid as stabilizing agent which produced particles of relatively narrow size distribution, having d =2.3±0.5nm. High resolution TEM and zeta potential analysis indicated that the particles produced by this method had a high degree of crystalline order with no amorphous outer shell and a high degree of colloidal stability. The keratinocytes and mammary breast cells (cancer and normal) were incubated with platinum folate nanoparticles, and the results showed that the IC50 was significantly higher for the normal cells than the cancer cells in both cases, indicating that these nanoparticles preferentially target the cancer cells. TEM images of thin sections taken from the two types of cells indicated that the number of vacuoles and morphology changes after incubation with nanoparticles was also larger for the cancer cells in both types of tissue studied. No preferential toxicity was observed when folic acid receptors were saturated with free folic acid prior to exposure to nanoparticles. These results confirm our hypothesis regarding the preferential penetration of folic acid coated nanoparticles to cancer cells due to receptor mediated endocytosis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this study, we surface-functionalized the extended floating gate (FG) sensing surface (Al 2 O 3 ) of an ion-sensitive floating-gate field-effect transistor (ISFGFET) with polyaniline/dinonylnaphthalenesulfonic acid (PANI/DNNSA) to construct an organo-surface functionalized bio-sensing device. We measured the threshold voltage (V T ) of the device, which was used to determine the potential change at the interface between the PANI/DNNSA layer and aqueous solution. The device was characterized under various pHs as well as enzymatic reaction catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) immobilized on the PANI/DNNSA functionalized floating-gate sensing surface. Interestingly, upon surface modifications, the pH and enzymatic reaction sensing behaviors of the device became dependent on the PANI/DNNSA layer, proving that open circuit potentiometric (OCP) responses can be transferred to ISFGFETs. Kinetics of the reactions was tuned through the selection of substrates, exemplified with o-Phenylenediamine (OPD) and 2,2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS). The potential shifts caused by those reactions were explained using an operational model that illustrates “dual sensitivity” of PANI/DNNSA toward ionic and redox species. The sensing concept for the probing of peroxidase-catalyzed charge/electron transfers can potentially be applied to hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) sensing and paves the way for multiplexed potentiometric ELISA tests on such an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) device. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flame retardant, environmentally sustainable nanocomposites were made by melt blending poly (lactic acid) (PLA) with melamine polyphosphate (MPP) and Cloisite 30B (C-30B). The composition of the nanocomposite was highly specific and guided by interfacial energy minimization principals which balanced enthalpic and mechanical contributions. In this critical range, even small changes in the filler concentration can have a large impact on the performance of the material. We showed that while addition of 17% MPP can increase the flame resistance of PLA, (achieving a UL-94 V2 rating) the mechanical properties were significantly degraded. Addition of only 1% C-30B reversed these effects and yielded a nanocomposite with enhanced mechanical properties and passing the UL-94 V0 flame test. This compound was able to be extruded and fed into a Makerbot Replicator 2X Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printer, where the printed samples were indistinguishable mechanically from their molded counterparts and also achieved the UL-94 V0 rating. The enhanced performance occurred only within a very narrow composition window. Cone calorimetry revealed that while a significant decrease in the heat release rate, accompanied by the formation of an intumescent char, was achieved by the addition of 1% C-30B to the MPP/PLA blend, a very poor char, corresponding the increase in the heat release rate, was obtained with addition of 2% C-30B. These results were explained in view of the altered phase morphology observed in Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental concerns have resulted in the increased use of biodegradable polymers and their nanocomposites. We have developed a facile method for measuring the work of adhesion ( W a ) between nanoparticles and their matrix, which we showed can be used to determine their degree of intercalation within the matrix. This method was then applied to Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites with either sodium montmorillonite clays (C-Na+), organically modified clays (C-30B), resorcinol di (phenyl phosphate) (RDP) coated C-Na+ (C-RDP), Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) and RDP coated HNTs (H-RDP). The C-30B showed the highest W a within the PLA matrix, followed by the C-RDP and the C-Na+. X-ray diffraction and TEM indicated that the C-30B platelets were highly exfoliated, the C-RDP were intercalated, while the C-Na+ were aggregated in the PLA matrix. Oxygen gas permeability measurements showed the largest decrease in permeability for the C-30B nanocomposites, followed by the C-RDP, and the C-Na+ nanocomposites. The values of the particle aspect ratios obtained using Nielsen model were consistent with the TEM images. In contrast to clay platelets, HNTs and H-RDP were not effective in decreasing oxygen gas permeability of PLA matrix, which was in excellent agreement with the model we derived. Despite the higher degree of exfoliation, the C-30B nanocomposites had a significantly lower Izod impact than the C-RDP nanocomposites. SEM images showed numerous micro-voids on the Izod impact fracture surface of C-30B nanocomposites. On the other hand, the nanotubes were much more effective in reinforcing the mechanical properties, with RDP coated tubes having the better performance, consistent with their higher value of W a with PLA matrix. These results showed that RDP coated silicate nanoparticles can provide environmentally safe alternatives for modifying the mechanical and gas barrier properties of PLA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En masse cell migration is more relevant compared with single-cell migration in physiological processes of tissue formation, such as embryogenesis, morphogenesis, and wound healing. In these situations, cells are influenced by the proximity of other cells including interactions facilitated by substrate mechanics. Here, we found that when fibroblasts migrated en masse over a hydrogel, they established a well-defined deformation field by traction forces and migrated along a trajectory defined by field gradients. The mechanics of the hydrogel determined the magnitude of the gradient. For materials stiff enough to withstand deformation related to cellular traction forces, such patterns did not form. Furthermore, migration patterns functioned poorly on very soft matrices where only a minimal traction gradient could be established. The largest degree of alignment and migration velocity occurred on the gels with the largest gradients. Granulation tissue formation in punch wounds of juvenile pigs was correlated strongly with the modulus of the implanted gel, in agreement with in vitro en masse cell migration studies. These findings provide basic insight into the biomechanical influences on fibroblast movement in early wounds and relevant design criteria for the development of tissue-engineered constructs that aim to stimulate en masse cell recruitment for rapid wound healing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We have shown that the addition of resorcinol di(phenyl phosphate) (RDP)-coated starch can improve the compatibility to either Ecoflex or poly(lactic acid) (PLA). The increased compatibilization enhanced the tensile properties such as yield strength and impact toughness. In particular, we examined the effect of addition of RDP-coated starch on thermal responses of a blend of Ecoflex/PLA. We found that the combination of RDP-coated starches with nanoclays could render the blends self-extinguishing since they are formed as a shell-like chars on the exposure surface against heat, which can prevent the melt polymers against dripping. With an examination on the scanning transmission X-ray microscopy (STXM) images of the blends, the Ecoflex domains were well dispersed in the PLA matrix, while the domains became smaller when the RDP-coated starch was added. Moreover, we demonstrated that the introduction of either flat-like or tube-like clays could provide an increase of interfacial area on the RDP-coated starch surfaces, where each polymer chain preferentially segregates to either the starch or the clay surface. Thus, large complex in-situ grafts with polymers can be formed at the interfaces. Additionally, the complex in-situ grafts could influence flammability of the blends. We have shown that the addition of RDP-coated clays can decrease the mass loss rate of Ecoflex/Starch blends, while a lot of nanofiber are formed on the chars surface, which are entangled each other with the clay platelets. The mechanical properties of the chars structures were examined by nano-indentation, where a good elastic chars formation could keep the internal pressures built up with decomposed gases from melt polymers as well as ductility of the chars could play an important role on releasing the internal gases through small vents on its surface, steadily where a good elastic and ductile chars formation could require keeping the internal pressures built up with decomposed gases from melt polymers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We have investigated the effects of moderate static magnetic fields (SMFs) on murine MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts, and found that they enhance proliferations and promote differentiation. The increase in proliferation rates in response to SMFs was greater in cultures grown on partially sulfonated polytstyrene (SPS, degree of sulfonation: 33%) than in cultures grown on tissue culture plastic. We have previously shown that when the degree of sulfonation exceeded a critical value (12%) , spontaneous fibrillogenesis occured which allowed for direct observation of the ECM fibrillar organization under the influence of external fields. We found that the ECM produced in cultures grown on the SPS in the presence of the SMFs assembled into a lattice with larger dimensions than the ECM of the cultures grown in the absence of SMFs. During the early stages of the biomineralization process (day 7), the SMF exposed cultures also templated mineral deposition more rapidly than the control cultures. The rapid response is attributed to orientation of diamagnetic ECM proteins already present in the serum, which could then initiate further cellular signaling. SMFs also influenced late stage osteoblast differentiation as measured by the increased rate of osteocalcin secretion and gene expression beginning 15 days after SFM exposure. This correlated with a large increase in mineral deposition, and in cell modulus. GIXD and EDXS analysis confirmed early deposition of crystalline hydroxyapatite. Previous studies on the effects of moderate SMF had focused on cellular gene and protein expression, but did not consider the organization of the ECM fibers. Our ability to form these fibers has allowed us explore this additional effect and highlight its significance in the initiation of the biomineralization process. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We have shown that the addition of nanoclays is an effective means for enhancing the flame retardant properties of polymer blends. Polymer blends are difficult to render flame retardant even with the addition of flame retardant agents due to dispersion and phase segregation during the heating process. We show that the addition of 5% functionalized Cloisite 20A clays in combination with 15% decabromodiphenyl ether and 4% antimony trioxide to a polystyrene/poly(methyl methacrylate) blend can render the compound flame resistant within the UL-94-V0 standard. Using a variety of micro-characterization methods, we show that the clays are concentrated at the interfaces between the polymers in this blend and completely suppress phase segregation. The flame retardant (FR) is absorbed onto the clay surfaces, and the exfoliation of the clays also distributes the FR agent uniformly within the matrix. TGA of the nanocomposite indicates that prior to the addition of clay, the dissociation times of the individual components varied by more than 20°C, which complicated the gas-phase kinetics. Addition of the clays causes all the components to have a single dissociation temperature, which enhanced the efficacy of the FR formula in the gas phase. Cone calorimetry also indicated that the clays decreased the heat release rate (HRR) and the mass loss rate (MLR), due to the formation of a robust char. In contrast, minimal charring occurred in blends containing just the FR. SEM examination of the chars showed that the clay platelets were curved and in some cases tightly folded into nanotube-like structures. These features were only apparent in blends, indicating that they might be associated with thermal gradients across the polymer phase interface. SEM and SAXS examinations of the nanocomposites after partial exposure to the flame indicated that the clays aggregated into ribbon-like structures, approximately microns in length, after the surfactant thermally decomposed. Thermal modeling indicated that these ribbons might partially explain the synergy due to better distribution of the heat and improve the mechanical properties of the melt at high temperatures, in a manner similar to the one reported for carbon nanotubes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The high concentration triblock copolymer poly(ethylene oxide)99–poly(propylene oxide)69–poly(ethylene oxide)99 (Pluronic F127) aqueous solutions with the addition of different components commonly used in physiologically relevant applications were characterized by rheological measurements, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and small angle X-ray/neutron scattering. The sol–gel transition temperature, as well as the storage modulus of the F127 solution depend both on the concentration of polymer and of clay. Above the gel transition, the storage modulus of the solutions increased with clay concentration. Yield strain is independent of polymer and clay concentrations. Two different kinds of inorganic salts, sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) were added into the polymer and polymer–clay solutions. The sol–gel transition temperature decreased noticeably, but the storage modulus decreased only a small amount with increasing concentration of inorganic salts. Addition of salts to polymer–clay solutions resulted in precipitation of the clays which decreased the modulus. No effect on the mechanical properties was observed with the addition of common serum proteins. However, addition of 0.5–10% glucose decreased the transition temperature between 3° and 7°, without significantly affecting the modulus. The depression of the transition temperature by glucose was similar to that found with salts and indicated that the mechanism, namely competition for water, may be similar. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We demonstrated that self-extinguishing polymer nanocomposites, which can pass the stringent UL 94 V0 standard, can be successfully prepared by combining modified organoclays with traditional flame retardant (FR) agents. Using secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we determined that the addition of modified clays, which can intercalate or exfoliate in the matrix, also improved the dispersion of the FR agents. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) indicated that the clays increased the modulus of the polymer above T g, which prevented dripping during burning. Cone calorimetry test showed that the nanocomposites with both FR and organoclay, had a lower peak heat release rate (PHRR) and average mass loss rate (MLR) than those with only clay or the FR agents. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data confirmed that no FR/clay interactions occurred in the solid phase, and that the synergistic effects were due to gas phase reactions. Since this mechanism is not specific, it opens the possibility of formulating self-extinguishing materials from a large class of polymers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A three-dimensional (3D) hyaluronic acid (HA) nanofibrous scaffold was successfully fabricated to mimic the architecture of natural extracelluar matrix (ECM) based on electrospinning. Thiolated HA derivative, 3,3′-dithiobis(propanoic dihydrazide)-modified HA (HA-DTPH), was synthesized and electrospun to form 3D nanofibrous scaffolds. In order to facilitate the fiber formation during electrospinning, Poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) was added into the aqueous solution of HA-DTPH at an optimal weight ratio of 1:1. The electrospun HA-DTPH/PEO blend scaffold was subsequently cross-linked through poly (ethylene glycol)-diacrylate (PEGDA) mediated conjugate addition. PEO was then extracted in DI water to obtain an electrospun HA-DTPH nanofibrous scaffold. NIH 3T3 fibroblasts were seeded on fibronectin-adsorbed HA-DTPH nanofibrous scaffolds for 24h in vitro. Fluorescence microscopy and laser scanning confocal microscopy revealed that the 3T3 fibroblasts attached to the scaffold and spread, demonstrating an extended dendritic morphology within the scaffold, which suggests potential applications of HA-DTPH nanofibrous scaffolds in cell encapsulation and tissue regeneration. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We have developed a flame retardant poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composite with the addition of only 2 wt% of ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and 0.12 wt% of resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP), which achieved the V-0 rating of UL-94 test and could be drawn into filaments for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing. The composite was designed by analyzing the work of adhesion (W a) between RDP/PLA, RDP/APP and PLA/APP, where RDP was found to act as the compatibilizer to improve the dispersion of APP particles within PLA matrix, resulting in enhanced flame retardant efficiency. These results were confirmed by thermal imaging of the UL-94 burning process and cone calorimetry. Scanning electron microscopy imaging and EDS mapping also confirmed the better dispersion of APP particles and the reduced particle size with the addition of RDP. Furthermore, with RDP localized on the PLA/APP interface, the relatively high W a between RDP/PLA and RDP/APP minimized the negative effect of APP and RDP on mechanical properties. Impact and tensile testing showed that the PLA/APP/RDP composite has mechanical properties comparable to those of neat PLA, which enabled the composite to be drawn into thin filaments for 3D printing application. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complementary techniques were applied to characterize the structure property relationships of FDM printed isotactic polypropylene/graphene nanocomposites. Raman spectroscopy indicated that graphene was mostly exfoliated during the nozzle extrusion process. Rheological measurements of the viscosity indicated that the presence of graphene induced shear thinning during extrusion. Azimuthal scans of wide angle x-ray scattering indicate correlated thermal fluctuations of the graphene platelets which stops abruptly at the onset of transcrystallization, or templating of the iPP chains on the graphene. X-ray microbeam SAXS analysis show the formation of 'shish-kebab' structures at the core of the unfilled filaments, where the 'kebab' component vanishes at the fiber-fiber interface enabling interdiffusion. Weak lamellar structure, and a corresponding decrease in the storage modulus are observed with the addition of 5% graphene. The lamellar structure disappears entirely with the addition of 10% graphene, while the storage modulus is decreased by nearly 50%. Thermal imaging of heat flux dissipation across molded and printed samples shows no orientational effects in pure iPP despite differences in crystal structure. Thermal conductivity increases dramatically in the samples with 10% graphene, and strong orientational effects are observed where the thermal coefficients differ by 180% between samples printed parallel or perpendicular to the heat flux. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is an urgent demand for producing biodegradable polymer based composites with good thermal and/or electrical conductivity to mitigate the plastic pollution introduced by electronic waste. Here, we have designed and engineered a mechanically strong, melt processable, biodegradable polymer based nanocomposite with excellent thermal and electrical conductivity using filler dispersion principle and the work of adhesion (W a) as guides. In the design, graphene nano-platelets (GNPs) were dispersed into a highly ductile biodegradable polymer - poly (butylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate) (PBAT). Blending with another biodegradable polymer, poly (lactic acid) (PLA) that has low affinity to GNPs, confined the dispersion of GNPs within PBAT matrix, thereby facilitating the formation of a percolated network. As a result, high thermal conductivity (3.15 W / m ⋅ K) and electrical conductivity (338 S / m) were achieved for the nanocomposite at 40 wt% of GNPs loading, and the mechanical performance remained strong even at such filler loading due to the strong interaction between GNPs and PBAT. This study provides a new strategy for effectively producing high thermally and/or electrically conductive polymer nanocomposites. Image 1 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Enhancing proton exchange membrane fuel cell power output by 60% using low platinum-group metal (PGM) loading. • Superior carbon monoxide resistance, increased tolerance to impurities in input H 2 stream. • Ability to operate under ambient conditions, broad temperature range, and with high CO 2 air levels. • Improving durability after 30,000 cycles of accelerated stress test. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are one of the most promising energy solutions in meeting the soaring global energy demand and relieving the environmental concerns associated with greenhouse emissions. Cost and durability are two main obstacles hindering the successful commercialization of PEMFCs. Here, we propose a solution which could significantly enhance durability, reduce PGM catalyst, and increase tolerance to impure hydrogen sources thereby reducing cost and increasing convenience by allowing operation in ambient conditions. We show that applying a coating of 1 μg/cm2 of graphene oxide (GO) directly onto the Nafion membrane or electrodes enabled a 60% enhancement of the maximum power output to 0.78 or 0.76 W/cm2, using only a total of 0.15 mg/cm2 Pt catalyst. Durability tests were carried out complying with the DOE2020 protocols, indicating that the enhancement persisted even after 30k cycles, where the maximum power decrease was only 9%, as compared with 18% in the control sample, and the decrease in voltage at 1.5 A/cm2 was only 13%, as compared with 70% of the control sample. In addition, blending of 0.1% CO gas into the input H 2 stream reduced the power by 72% in the control, while only 26% power reduction was observed in the coated PEMFCs. Also, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements exhibited a decrease in resistance of only 13%, while the active Pt surface area of the electrode with GO coating after 30k cycles was 17.5% higher than the control and the minimal DOE requirement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using known parameters for the surface and interfacial tension, the work of adhesion of PMMA with PLA and styrenic polymers has been calculated. The results indicated that PMMA, an abundant and economical homopolymer, could serve as an effective compatibilizer, rivaling complex and costly block copolymers for PLA/styrenic blends. Blends of PLA with either SAN or ABS were produced with added 1%–10% PMMA. Tensile and impact toughness data show that the blends display properties comparable to those of PP with only 4% added PMMA. Deuterated-secondary ion mass spectrometry (DSIMS) performed with deuterated PMMA indicated that this corresponded to the formation of an interfacial layer approximately 2Rg thick, as the optimal thickness for integrating two polymers, without the formation of a third brittle layer. Blends with ABS showed an increase of nearly 300% in impact toughness compared to that for polymer containing no PMMA, while blends with SAN formed ideal extruded filaments, which produced 3-D printed structures at least 58% stronger and more ductile than molded PS. Image 1 • Imported work of adhesion to calculate the polymer/polymer interfacial energy as to guide the selection of compatibilizer. • Enhanced the mechanical properties of the PLA/styrenics with low PMMA loading and low cost. • Introduced secondary ion mass spectrometry to track the location of the minor phase. • Developed 3D-printable polymer blends with high toughness and high degradability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]