Search

While many studies have illustrated the decline of animal populations—particularly of farmland birds—the statistical analyses, design, and protocols used have raised some concerns and criticism. Using a 27-year dataset (1996–2022) based on recording the number of skylarks (Alauda arvensis) at 160 longitudinal count points, our study confronts two approaches commonly used to model long-term trends. The first uses a single model (based on a priori ecological knowledge), while the second is an a posteriori approach that relies on a multi-model selection among candidate models that account for probability distributions to describe the error structure. Here we investigate whether the statistical distribution of modelled variables and the method of including covariates in the model affect trend estimates. With a large amount of data and in the case of underdispersion, we found that the model distribution used had no impact on the estimation of the long-term trend. Moreover, adding confounding covariates did not change or improve the trend estimation, at least when data were obtained from a well-designed protocol (our case). In contrast to other studies reporting an effect of the model's distribution on long-term trends, especially in the presence of overdispersion, our results offer a new perspective on the presence of underdispersion, where simple models perform equally well as complex ones. Further research is now needed on multiple species data or on smaller data sets to check the generality of our findings. • We compare a priori single- to a multi-model approach to estimate a temporal trend. • We use a 27-year dataset of 160 transect count points of skylark in a farmland area. • Model distribution has no effect on trend estimate in case of underdispersion. • Covariates have no effect on trend estimate with data from a well-designed protocol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiverse areas of traditional low-intensity agriculture in Europe, or ‘High Nature Value’ (HNV) farmland, are supported by European policy and government subsidies. However, HNV areas have declined in extent, contributing to biodiversity decline. If some traditional practices in HNV farmland could be modernised without reducing natural values, this could improve the economic viability of HNV farms, increasing their resilience to economic pressures. Here we compare one traditional and two modernised cereal harvesting methods on machair , an HNV farmed landscape typical of the Scottish islands, focussing on the value of post-harvest stubbles to wintering birds. Following traditional practice, all cereals were mixed species crops comprised of local varieties of small oats, barley and rye. Grain abundance and seed-eating bird use of stubbles was compared across 16 rounds of visits to 15 fields, five under each of three harvest methods: traditional reaper-binder (machinery from 1950–60s), combine-harvesters (1970–80s) and arable silage (1990–2000s). The two forms of harvest modernisation (combine harvester, arable silage) produced stubbles that differed markedly in bird use. Skylark and bunting occurrence, and grain abundance, were 1.7–19 times higher on stubbles following combine harvesting, than on those following arable silage. Unexpectedly, combine-harvester stubbles had similar levels of bird use to those following traditional reaper-binder harvest. Our results suggest that harvesting on machair could be modernised using (older model) combine-harvesters in place of traditional methods, with little impact on stubble value for birds, maintaining this aspect of high nature value. Conversely, modernisation involving more cereals harvested as arable silage, under current practice, is likely to reduce stubble quality for seed-eating birds. Future work could test whether delayed cutting of arable silage might create stubbles of greater value for birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Farmland birds are important indicators of the state of biodiversity in rural landscapes, and the occurrence and abundance of birds contribute to their importance as bioindicators. However, the measurement of farmland bird abundance can be difficult. The rapid growth of crop plants in the spring combined with disturbances related to farming practices, such as weed and pest control and other measures, can profoundly change the habitat suitability of arable fields for birds within a short period of time. Consequently, the existing dynamics must be incorporated into the applied methods, and a single value of bird abundance during the breeding season is insufficient to characterise the habitat functions of arable land. The abundance of farmland bird species is influenced by crop specific features, which profoundly change within the breeding season and which we have described using a novel concept called Moving Window Abundance. Based on field surveys in 29 observation areas within arable landscapes, each 1 km 2 , Skylark with territorial behaviour were counted using a mapping method related to the habitats and growth of field crops, such as wheat and maize. To describe the dynamic characteristics of the abundance during the breeding season over the time period from 16 March to 18 July, three methods of Moving Window Abundance were tested: patchy, adjacent and overlapping. These methods differ in the time-space continuity of the considered time window throughout the breeding season. In the Patchy Moving Window Abundance method, we used the exact days in which field surveys were conducted throughout the entire time period of the field surveys. However, with the Adjacent Moving Window Abundance method, the time window included five-day, ten-day and semi-monthly adjacent windows; in the Overlapping Moving Window Abundance method, the time window shifted daily, with five-day, ten-day and semi-monthly overlapping windows used in the calculation procedure. The results indicated that the dynamic nature of Skylark abundance (i) reached a maximum level in the first breeding period in the agricultural landscape and (ii) exhibited large variations in level and time within the various field crops. Therefore, abundance was not described conventionally using a single numerical value but rather using mathematical functions based on the spatial scale of the landscape and habitat. We conclude with recommendations for further research to standardise farmland bird monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advances in our understanding of recent farmland biodiversity loss have mainly come from studies in Western Europe. The application of such findings to other regions is questionable, however, and limits the outcomes of management actions. To bridge this knowledge gap, we focused on relationships between farmland bird abundance and sward height and crop type, counting breeding birds in three Central European regions with different agricultural histories and practices: the Eastern Czech Republic, Western Germany and Central Poland. We used the skylark ( Alauda arvensis ) as a model species due to its tight association with open habitats year-round and its commonness in European farmland. Skylarks were more abundant in Poland than in Germany and the Czech Republic, probably due to less intensive farmland management. Mean abundance declined with growing sward height from April to June and slightly declined with the number of fields surrounding study sites in all regions. Autumn- and spring-sown cereals hosted the highest abundance of skylarks in May, with lower abundance in maize, oilseed rape and meadows irrespective of region. This variation in skylark numbers suggests a temporal shift in abundance, probably reflecting movement between crops with optimal sward height. Taken together, these results indicate that skylark habitat use is somewhat conserved over regions and this knowledge can be used in management plans throughout Europe. However, the observed differences in skylark abundance between regions suggest that the regional-specific level of agricultural intensity may affect the delivery of conservation benefits from such plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grass fodder crops are attractive nesting habitats for a suite of declining farmland bird species that nest in taller grass swards. Multiple, early silage harvests cause substantial losses of nests and flightless fledglings, making this widespread crop an influential population sink in temperate farmland. We measured the effects of two simple conservation interventions (raised cutting heights and delayed mowing) designed to increase the reproductive output of a multi-brooded passerine (skylark Alauda arvensis ). Annual reproductive output of independent juveniles (fecundity) was quantified using a stochastic re-nesting model that allowed us to investigate the impacts of a wide range of potential management interventions (varying cutting heights, dates and machinery) at minimal cost. Under typical silage management mean skylark fecundity was only 13–17% of the level required for metapopulation stability (the replacement rate). 12–54% of nests and 28–44% of fledglings survived a typical silage harvest with most losses caused by abandonment of nests covered by cut grass, crushing by wheels or predation soon after mowing. Delaying mowing increased fecundity, but only up to a maximum of 44% of the replacement rate. Raising cutting heights had a negligible impact on fecundity. Asynchrony between nesting attempts (due to predation, starvation and protracted delays between nesting attempts) resulted in few attempts taking place when they could benefit from the interventions. In the absence of mowing, fecundity was only 47% of the replacement rate, due to low reproductive output per nesting attempt, while simulations showed that increasing output per nest would have the largest impact on fecundity. Conservation effort should focus on providing alternative high fecundity breeding and foraging habitats at the landscape scale, to counteract silage fields’ action as a sink for skylark populations in livestock-farming areas. These conclusions are likely to apply to other multi-brooded ground-nesting species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, an agent-based model of heterogeneous farmer decision-making was coupled with an individual-based model of skylark breeding populations, and applied to a small intensive arable catchment in Scotland. The impacts of farmer decisions on a tradeoff between food and bioenergy production, and skylark numbers, were simulated under the assumptions of three socio-economic scenarios until the year 2050. Bioenergy and food production had a significant negative effect on adult and fledgling skylarks. In a business-as-usual context, the production of food and bioenergy increases smoothly, and the number of skylarks is more stable over time than in other scenarios. Food production was higher in an economic liberalisation scenario, due to intensive management and higher yield performance. This explained the low average number of skylarks found at the landscape level in this scenario. The number of skylarks was highest in a sustainability-oriented scenario, but a sharp decrease was observed from 2035 onwards due to the large area planted with bioenergy crops. The different values for economic, environmental and social attributes of farmer decisions played an important role in the land use mosaic, the implementation of ecologically-related actions and on the provision of ecosystem services and biodiversity. Overall, results suggest that a re-assessment of policy targets and design is necessary to maximise environmental management efficiency at the catchment level by taking into account the heterogeneity in farmer objectives and the tradeoffs in ecosystem services provision. The novel approach of coupling an ABM with an IBM is encouraged in further land use related studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The trade-off between forage quality and quantity has been particularly studied in herbivore organisms, but much less for seed eating animals, in particular seed-eating birds which constitute the bulk of wintering passerines in European farmlands. The skylark is one of the commonest farmland birds in winter, mainly feeding on seeds. We focus on weed seeds for conservation and management purposes. Weed seeds form the bulk of the diet of skylarks during winter period, and although this is still a matter for discussion, weed seed predation by granivorous has been suggested as an alternative to herbicides used to regulate weed populations in arable crops. Our objectives were to identify whether weed seed traits govern foraging decisions of skylarks, and to characterize key seed traits with respect to size, which is related to searching and handling time, and lipid content, which is essential for migratory birds. We combined a single-offer experiment and a multiple-offer one to test for feeding preferences of the birds by estimating seed intake on weed seed species differing in their seed size and seed lipid content. Our results showed (1) a selective preference for smaller seeds above a threshold of seed size or seed size difference in the pair and, (2) a significant effect of seed lipid biomass suggesting a trade-off between foraging for smaller seeds and selecting seeds rich in lipids. Skylarks foraging decision thus seems to be mainly based on seed size, that is presumably a ‘proxy’ for weed seed energy content. However, there are clearly many possible combinations of morphological and physiological traits that must play crucial role in the plant–bird interaction such as toxic compound or seed coat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We estimate effects of grass buffer strips on in-field biodiversity. [•] Buffer strip fields support more beetles and spiders compared to control fields. [•] Buffer strip fields also support more skylarks irrespective of sowing regime. [•] Buffer strip effects are expected to depend on landscape scale implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Skylark breeding habitat selection changes with spatial scale and time. [•] Skylarks select for areas of higher crop diversity up to a 200m scale around them. [•] Positive selection for crop diversity results from synergies among crops. [•] At landscape scale, smaller fields and crop well mixed are beneficial for Skylarks. [•] We must consider time, spatial scales and synergies in habitat selection studies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Skylarks favour field margins for foraging over all other habitat types. [•] Field margin visiting rates are low when the distance from the nest exceeds 100m. [•] The efficiency of field margins is hampered by suboptimal spatial arrangement. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The study compares populations of two typical open farmland bird species, the skylark and the meadow pipit, on fields with open in-field and subsurface drainage systems in Finland. Data are derived from the national monitoring of farmland birds for 2002–2009 and are based on territory mapping. Generalised additive mixed models with repeated measures were used to investigate territory density and temporal population trends of the species on crop and grassland fields with two types of drainage. The results provided evidence for a higher habitat value of fields under open drainage (ODF) than fields with subsurface drainage (SDF) for the meadow pipit at any given year. Both species’ trends were significantly positive on ODF while trends on SDF were not significantly directional. This strongly suggests that foraging resources and nest survival of individuals breeding in ODF habitats rise above those of SDF habitats. The retention of the remaining ODF as part of the agri-environmental and relevant land-use policies could contribute to stabilisation and enhancement of populations of farmland birds for regions in Europe and elsewhere with the need for drainage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Among 66 Estonian farms, representing three subsidy types, birds (especially Sylvia communis and Saxicola rubetra) were more abundant in organic farms that received the largest subsidies and were typically situated in structurally diverse landscapes with a high share of grasslands. Vertical landscape elements most clearly promoted species richness of breeding birds and S. communis. However, among management-related environmental factors considered, only fertilizer input was consistently subsidy-type dependent (highest inputs at medium subsidy levels). High inputs reduced species richness of breeding birds and the density of Alauda arvensis. When environmental factors were accounted for, no significant influences of the subsidy type on birds were observed, but region-specificity remained significant. Our results indicate that differentiation of national subsidies in the AES framework does not necessarily lead to distinct environmental effects, and that targeting of the subsidies on particular species is necessary to effectively improve current environmental conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: European farmland bird populations have decreased dramatically in recent decades and agricultural intensification has been identified as the main cause contributing to these declines. Identifying which specific intensification pressures are driving those population trends seems vital for bird conservation in European farmland. We investigated the response of ground-nesting farmland birds to the multivariate process of agricultural intensification in six European countries covering a bio-geographical and intensification gradient. Supported by PCA analysis, two groups of factors, related to field management and landscape modification, were considered, seeking to discriminate the relative importance of the effects of these main intensification components. Variance partition analysis showed that landscape factors accounted for most of the variation of ground-nesting farmland bird individual and breeding pair densities, as well as Skylark (i.e. our single model species) individual densities. In the case of Skylark breeders, field factors were found to be more important to explain their density. Our results suggest that in general farmland bird densities as well as Skylark densities are higher in simple landscapes dominated by agriculture, but with smaller fields and more different crops on the farms. In addition, high yields were negatively related to bird densities. We conclude that while management actions aimed at farmland bird conservation taken at landscape level may exert a strong positive effect on overall bird densities, those taken at field level are also relevant, particularly for breeders and, therefore, may potentially influence the persistence of these species’ populations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Variation in the distributions of different species of lark was assessed along the two main agricultural gradients in the steppe and semi-desert zones of Kazakhstan: the intensity of grazing and the time since abandonment of cereal fields. Vegetation structure and composition varied significantly with time since abandonment, and with changing grazing pressure. The studied lark species responded in non-linear ways to both these gradients and showed a high degree of niche separation, with black lark, calandra lark and skylark preferring denser and taller vegetation compared to white-winged lark and short-toed lark. Lark populations generally are likely to have benefited from agricultural abandonment and a decline in livestock numbers over large parts of the steppes and semi-deserts of the former Soviet Union. The results suggest that an assessment of future changes in steppe bird communities based upon projections of changes in the area of gross habitat types can be improved by a better understanding of the responses of different species to more subtle environmental gradients. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline from the mid-1970s onwards and since then has continued to decline albeit at a reduced rate. Its listing as a UK Red-List and Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Species has helped focus conservation action in an attempt to halt the decline and stabilise populations by restoring degraded habitats or by creating new habitats. Newly created grassland on restored landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially contribute to this process, however the extent to which these areas support breeding populations is unknown. Territory densities of breeding skylarks were studied on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during May to July 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining how habitat quality, landscape factors and food resources determined territory densities. Mean vegetation height and size of sites were found to be significant predictors of the number of breeding skylarks at the local scale, whilst percentage of woodland, grassland and open habitat in the surrounding landscape had an influence at a larger scale. Mean larval and adult invertebrate abundance and species richness in skylark territories in restored landfill sites were found to be similar to that of reference sites of recognised nature conservation value. Restoration of landfill sites could be targeted toward species-specific goals since such sites could play a role in meeting targets for habitat and/or species restoration targets in the UK BAP. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Explanations for causes of farmland biodiversity declines often assume no spatial or temporal variation in the effects of land use on species abundance and performance. For example, European populations of skylark are assumed to have declined partly due to the switch from spring sown to autumn sown crops. Still, land use preferences of farmland birds may vary with region, landscape structure and time in the breeding season. We inventoried 430 transects in 36 landscape plots (each 25km2) in three major agricultural regions of southern Sweden and show that land use-specific densities of skylarks display strong temporal and regional differences. Pre-nesting densities in late April–early May were highest in autumn sown cereals and other arable land use with vegetation, but decreased during the course of the breeding season such that densities in spring sown cereals were slightly higher than those in autumn sown cereals late in the season. This temporal shift in crop-specific densities of skylarks differed between regions. Temporal patterns of crop-specific densities of skylarks could be explained in terms of vegetation-dependent nest predation risk and foraging conditions. We suggest that land use preferences of farmland birds often could be expected to display a temporal and spatial variation and this should be reflected in a more flexible, context-dependent approach for the conservation of farmland biodiversity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To slow down the decline of skylark populations, in agri-environment schemes within-field microhabitat structures with stunted growth of the vegetation (“scrapes”, “plots”) are created artificially for one year each. However, in arable land comparable microhabitat structures may develop spontaneously, and exist over long periods, caused by microgeological features, and traditional cultivation practices. Skylarks, and other species of arable ecosystems, may adhere strongly to such structures. In two study areas in southwestern Germany, with fairly high densities of 0.26–0.42 skylark territories/ha, 80.2% of the territory centres were situated near such structures; 32.4% were re-used in different years. In combination with the observation of further farmland species, e.g. arthropods, at these locations, it is suggested that short-lived structures with stunted vegetation may promote predominantly species with shorter life-cycles, while the longer-lived naturally forming structures may be attractive also for species with higher site-fidelity, or with multi-annual life-cycles. In many regions, at least traces of these structures are present in fields to date, but rapidly vanishing under use of modern agro-machinery, and thus becoming less effective in causing patchy, stunted vegetation. Yet, protection of such quasi self-preserving, sustainable microhabitat structures, adapted to local conditions, could benefit biodiversity. More studies are needed to understand in more detail the ecological role of these undervalued elements of arable ecosystems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Hedges provide important nesting, feeding and sheltering sites for birds in agricultural areas, while organic farming also enhances farmland birds. However, it is little known how the interaction of these local variables (amount of hedges and organic management) with landscape scale variables affects birds. We selected paired conventional and organic winter wheat fields and meadows in each of 10 landscapes in Germany. Birds were surveyed in the fields and in the adjoining hedges. More bird species occurred in organic than in conventional fields regardless of land-use type (wheat fields and meadows). However, hedge length had a much stronger effect on bird richness than organic farmland management. We found an interaction of landscape complexity and hedge length in that hedge length enhanced bird richness only in case of simple landscapes (<17% semi-natural areas within a 500m radius around the centre of bird survey plots). In more complex landscapes the local effect of hedge length levelled off because bird richness was high even without local hedges. Therefore, adding hedges or introducing organic farming practices should be primarily promoted in simple landscapes, where it really makes a difference for biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Here, I present the first comparison of the abundance of farmland birds in energy grass fields and in cereal-dominated conventionally cultivated fields (CCFs). I demonstrate that in boreal farmland, skylark (Alauda arvensis) densities were significantly lower in reed canary grass (RCG) (Phalaris arundinacea) fields than in CCFs. I found that during the early breeding season RCG fields and CCFs are equally good habitats, but over the ensuing couple of weeks RCG rapidly grows too tall and dense for field-nesting species. Consequently, RCG is an inferior habitat for skylark for laying replacement clutches (after failure of first nesting) or for a second clutch after one successful nesting. The results imply that if RCG cultivation is to be expanded, the establishment of large monocultures should be avoided in farmland landscapes; otherwise the novel habitat may affect detrimentally the seriously depleted skylark population, and probably also other field-nesting bird species with similar breeding habitats. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This 6-year experimental study measured the response of bird populations and abundance to combinations of mixed cropping and low pesticide regimes associated with a commercial crop rotation. The results show a rapid and sustained population increase among a wide range of bird species, in contrast to local regional trends for the same species. Seventy percent of the increase occurred within the first 3 years of the experiment, with species of high conservation concern, and those monitored as environmental indicators on lowland farmland in the UK, increasing on average, by 30% and 20% respectively (reaching respective peaks of 44% and 33% after 4 years). For some individual species, the increase was higher still, i.e., 300% (1–4 pairs) for grey partridge (Perdix perdix) and 46% (13–19 pairs) for skylarks (Alauda arvensis) in peak years. The results demonstrate that bird species typical of lowland arable farmland in the UK are responsive to suitable farm-scale changes in habitat and food provision (roughly, manipulation within less than 1-km2). They show that the carrying capacity of modern, commercially viable, arable farmland can be increased significantly for birds, in this case, mainly by using crops mosaics to create habitats alongside the appropriate use of herbicides on non-cropped habitats. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Agricultural intensification is responsible for the dramatic decline of farmland bird populations in the European Union (EU). The joining of eight Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries to the EU will re-structure agriculture there. One of the main threats is the intensification of farmland management. Can agri-environmental programs balance the expected decline in bird assemblages of the CEE countries if farming will be intensified? We studied this question by comparing bird assemblages of 42 extensively and intensively grazed paired fields in three regions of Hungary (alkali steppes and meadows in Central Hungary and alkali steppes in Eastern Hungary). Bird assemblages varied significantly across regions and grazing intensity. Intensively grazed sites showed a higher species number and diversity, but lower densities than the extensive sites. This is probably the consequence of higher landscape diversity of intensive sites, which included farm buildings, shelters, wells and other structures. Several bird species, mainly with European conservation concern, showed contrasting responses to grazing intensity in the three regions, including key grassland species (black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa, redshank Tringa totanus, skylark Alauda arvensis and corn bunting Emberiza calandra). Therefore, threat and sensitivity to grassland characteristics are correlating. Although many of the declining species of Western Europe are still abundant in Hungarian grasslands, our results project the threat of the expected intensification. This study showed that it is not possible to provide a general grassland management scheme that will favour all bird species in all regions of Hungary. In the process of integrating to the EU and re-structuring agriculture, the establishment of scientifically sound schemes is urgent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Habitat association models have recently been constructed for two farmland bird species: the skylark (Alauda arvensis) and the yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella). These models are based on a number of predictor variables which describe habitat variation measured at several farms in Oxfordshire, UK. They explain a high proportion of the variation in territory density and species occurrence for these two species and have been incorporated within a GIS. This system allows the user to manipulate the landscape, both structurally (by altering and/or removing boundaries) and agronomically (by changing the nature and timing of the cropping). The bird models are then reapplied to this changed landscape and the potential impact on the two species can be visualised in the form of a map. By comparing this to the baseline situation the degree and direction of change can be seen. As long as the assumptions and limitations of the underlying models are clearly understood, the GIS visualisation allows the ecological knowledge encapsulated in the models to be presented in a powerful and intuitive manner. The result is a system, which can be used for advisory work and policy advocacy for farmland birds. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Monitoring bird populations is labour-intensive and requires expert knowledge. Development of more cost-effective methods of bird species monitoring is therefore desirable. Simple rule-based (RB) models were developed that predicted the presence of birds in lowland arable farmland in the breeding season. These were based on the presence of key habitat elements required by the birds identified from the literature. Habitat data and bird data were collected independently from 525 transects each of which ran along a field margin. Model performance was tested in five species: grey partridge Perdix perdix, skylark Alauda arvensis, linnet Carduelis cannabina, corn bunting Miliaria calandra and yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella. RB models were not good predictors of species presence. Model performance did not vary appreciably between early or late breeding season or according to geographic region. Skylark had the best performing model, but even in this case the predictive power was low. Prediction of species presence from habitat survey data is therefore unlikely to be a cost-effective method of monitoring birds on British farmland. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Density and habitat selection of skylarks Alauda arvensis L. were studied in 65 localities of central and southern Iberia. Density was analysed in relation to climatic and geographic variables, as well as to habitat type, by means of linear regression models. Habitat selection was assessed by analysing the relationship of the species’ presence with vegetation structure using logistic regression. When all localities were considered, density of breeding skylarks was associated to altitude. During winter, skylark range increased and abundance was related to habitat type. Skylark winter density in dry pasture was 10–20 times higher than in any other habitats. Differences between winter and spring density presented a pattern similar to that found in winter and maximum values were reached in dry pasture. Summer and winter skylark presence showed an association to pasture and shrub <40 cm cover. These results demonstrate the importance of Iberian dry pastures as a wintering habitat for a considerable proportion of skylark European populations. The marked reduction of these habitats in Iberia over the last decades, associated to changes in agricultural practices, might contribute to the overall decline of the species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]