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Development of an anatomically accurate 3-dimensional (3D) digital model of the human larynx derived from published literature and radiographic imaging. The laryngeal framework was segmented from a computed tomography (CT) angiogram of a healthy 29-year-old female. Data derived from published anatomical studies were compiled to provide additional anatomical detail to each structure. Anatomical details beyond the resolution of the imaging study or which could not be elucidated from the study were refined according to descriptions in the anatomic literature. The 3D model was refined by the medical illustrator, and its mesh was reformatted to optimize online viewing and manipulation. Due to the small size of the laryngeal muscles, there was no attempt to segment these muscles using radiographic imaging. All intrinsic laryngeal muscles were generated de novo , as were the superior laryngeal nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve. CT imaging was utilized to generate meshes of the hyoid bone, epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and thyrohyoid membrane. Additionally, the airway space was segmented to provide size and spatial location to the vallecula, false vocal folds, true vocal folds, piriform sinus, subglottis, and a scaffold for the mucosa. These meshes were processed to limit radiographic artifact and serve as a foundation for the construction of the remainder of the laryngeal anatomy. The model was uploaded to a 3D repository, which can be accessed here (https://shorturl.at/nJPYZ). The larynx is a highly specialized organ essential for speech, swallowing, and airway protection. This study describes a digital 3D model of the larynx, created by combining radiographic imaging with critical review of anatomic literature. Utilizing the expertise of neuroradiology, laryngeal surgery, and medical illustration, we highlight surgically-relevant anatomic relationships and important aspects to consider during laryngeal surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development of an anatomically accurate 3-dimensional (3D) digital model of the human nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx derived from published literature and radiographic imaging. Muscles of the pharynx, including the palatopharyngeus, superior, middle, and inferior constrictor, salpingopharyngeus and stylopharyngeus were manually segmented from a head and neck CT angiogram of a healthy 29-year-old female. Data derived from published anatomical studies were compiled to provide additional anatomical detail to each muscle. The eustachian tube and supporting structures, adjacent supporting structures, and adjacent major neurovasculature were also segmented. These anatomical details were then incorporated into the model by a 3D medical illustrator. A total of 6 muscles were segmented from CT angiography data as were the hyoid bone, thyroid and cricoid cartilage, epiglottis, skull base, course of the eustachian tube, and nearby major arteries and veins. Meshes were further refined in digital 3D space based on data from peer-reviewed anatomical studies. The left trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, and hypoglossal nerves were incorporated into the model to highlight important anatomical relationships relevant for surgery. Finally, the model was uploaded to a publicly available 3D repository, which can be accessed here (https://shorturl.at/qJO16). The pharynx is a complex 3D structure that plays a critical role in swallowing, speaking, and airway protection. By combining radiographic data with published anatomical descriptions, and through the collaboration between neuroradiology, head and neck surgery, and medical illustration, we developed an anatomically accurate, detailed 3D model of the pharynx for education and training purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development of an anatomically accurate, digital, 3-dimensional (3D) model of the masticator space, including the muscles of mastication and temporomandibular joint, by combining data from radiographic imaging and published literature, and augmenting this with medical illustration. The present study involved the manual segmentation of the muscles of mastication, namely the masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid muscles, as well as the buccinator muscle from a head and neck CT angiogram of a healthy 29-year-old female. The skull base, supporting structures, and adjacent major arteries were also segmented from the same study. The segmentation was then refined based on a compilation of data from published anatomical studies, which were utilized to provide additional anatomical detail for each muscle. Published studies were also used to incorporate structures unable to be segmented by this imaging technique, specifically major cranial nerves and the temporomandibular joint. The resulting anatomical details were subsequently incorporated into a 3D model by a professional medical illustrator. A total of 5 left-sided muscles were segmented from CT angiography data and were incorporated with segmentations of the skull base and mandible. Meshes were further refined in digital 3D space based on data from peer-reviewed anatomical studies. The left temporomandibular joint, sphenomandibular ligament, and stylomandibular ligament, as well as the left trigeminal nerve and maxillary artery and its branches were incorporated into the model to highlight important surgical anatomical relationships. Finally, the model was uploaded to a publicly available 3D repository, available at https://shorturl.at/hnrVZ. This 3D study serves to demonstrate, in a layered fashion, the complex anatomy of the muscles of mastication, including their relationship with important cranial base and neurovascular structures relevant to common surgical procedures and approaches to the infratemporal fossa. Moreover, it serves as an adjunct to the other studies published in this issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using published literature and radiographic imaging, this study aims to develop an anatomically accurate 3-dimensional (3D) digital model of the human parotid gland, submandibular gland, facial nerve, and adjacent anatomy. The model is available for viewing at https://shorturl.at/uzADZ. The left parotid and submandibular glands, parotid ducts, retromandibular vein, external carotid artery, and its relevant branches were segmented from a computed tomography (CT) angiography study of a healthy female. The object segmentations were exported and refined based on a literature review of relevant anatomical structures. These structures were incorporated into the head and neck model to ensure compatibility with other anatomical structures, such as the mandible and skull base. Following the segmentation of the parotid and submandibular glands, the parotid gland was divided into superficial and deep lobes based on the course of the retromandibular vein. The facial nerve and its branches were added according to the most common anatomical variants. The internal maxillary artery and its first-order branches were identified; when below the resolution of the patient's imaging study, these branches were added according to the most commonly described anatomical variants. This applies to all other neurovascular structures depicted in the final renders. This study demonstrates the critical anatomic landmarks related to surgery of the parotid and submandibular glands, with particular emphasis on vascular structures including the maxillary and facial arteries, the common facial vein, external jugular vein, and retromandibular vein, as well as the facial nerve (CN VII), great auricular nerve, auriculotemporal nerve, lingual nerve, and hypoglossal nerve. The associated 3D model can serve as a helpful tool for improving the understanding of anatomical relationships, particularly in the parotid space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thyroidectomies are performed routinely by the head and neck surgeon, especially for neoplastic disease. Adequate vascular control has been key in avoiding damage to surrounding structures that may lead to vocal cord paralysis and hypothyroidism. Here, we review pertinent anatomical structures in the anterior neck and the thyroid through a cadaveric model presented in 3D with stereographic imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surgical approaches to the oropharynx have trended over the years from more invasive to more minimally invasive procedures, with the advent of transoral laser microsurgery and transoral robotic surgery. With less invasive procedure, visualization of critical structures may be more limited, necessitating a robust understanding and working knowledge of the underlying anatomy to avoid surgical complications and errors. Herein, we review pertinent anatomical structures in the oropharynx through use of a sagittally split cadaveric model in 2D and 3D imaging, with a focus on surgical relevance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mainstay of treatment for malignancies in the oral cavity often includes surgical resection. Tumor location in conjunction with the small cavity can create limitations to visualization that require an in-depth understanding of the anatomical structures and their relationships. 3-dimension stereoscopic imaging techniques and oral cavity dissection with an emphasis on the floor of mouth are reviewed, detailing important anatomical relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to develop an anatomically accurate three-dimensional (3D) digital model of the soft palate, derived from patient imaging data and peer-reviewed gross and microscopic anatomical studies, and to provide this model publically for educational purposes. A head and neck CT angiography study of a healthy 29-year-old female was segmented by a neuroradiologist and a head and neck cancer surgeon into 3D objects. Peer-reviewed anatomical literature was queried to provide additional anatomical details. These details were then incorporated into the model with the assistance of a 3D medical illustrator. Tissue segmentation derived from CTA provided baseline anatomical structures to model the 5 paired muscles of the soft palate, the paired eustachian tubes, and relevant bony architecture. Twelve peer-reviewed anatomical studies contained sufficient anatomical descriptions to guide refinement of these structures in digital 3D space. The final modeled objects were finalized by a medical illustrator and then uploaded to a publicly available 3D model repository. The soft palate is a dynamic 3D structure that plays an important role in essential functions such as breathing, swallowing, and speaking. By combining tissue segmentation from a normal neck CTA with published anatomical literature, and utilizing multidisciplinary expertise, we developed an anatomically accurate, detailed 3D model of the soft palate, which can serve as a powerful teaching aid for this complex region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combining published literature, radiographic imaging, and medical illustration, this study aimed to develop an anatomically accurate 3-dimensional (3D) digital model of the human tongue, and to make this model publicly available for education and training purposes. The intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of the tongue were manually segmented from a head and neck CT angiogram of a healthy 29-year-old female. Data derived from published anatomical studies were compiled to provide additional anatomical detail to each tongue muscle. These anatomical details were then incorporated into a model by a 3D medical illustrator. A total of nine muscles were segmented for this study, along with the mandible and the hyoid bone. 3D meshes of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue, intrinsic muscles of the tongue, and the mylohyoid were created from CT angiography segmentation data. These meshes were refined in digital 3D space based off data from peer-reviewed anatomical studies. The final model was then uploaded to a publicly available 3D model repository. The tongue is a complex 3D organ with important roles in swallowing, speaking, and airway protection. By combining radiographic data with published anatomical descriptions, and through the collaboration between neuroradiology, head and neck surgery, and medical illustration, we developed an anatomically accurate, detailed 3D model of the oral tongue, which may serve as a powerful anatomy teaching aid. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the advent of non-surgical treatment options for laryngeal cancer, as well as partial laryngeal surgery for larynx cancer, total laryngectomy remains an important tool in the treatment of larynx cancer and non-functional larynx. With the use of 3-dimensional stereoscopic imaging techniques, total laryngectomy is herein reviewed with an emphasis on understanding the anatomic relationships encountered and considered during this procedure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parotidectomy and surgical access to the parapharyngeal space are common procedures for the head and neck surgeon, and an understanding of the complex anatomic relationships in this region is critical for safe navigation and management of both benign and malignant processes here. With the use of 3-dimension stereoscopic imaging techniques, parotidectomy and parapharyngeal space dissection are herein reviewed with an emphasis on important anatomic structures and their relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neck dissection is a commonly performed procedure in the treatment of most head and neck cancers, and principles of neck dissection surgery are used in the surgical treatment of a variety of benign processes as well. Developing a working knowledge of neck anatomy is critical for otolaryngologists in training to navigate through the neck competently and efficiently, whether during neck dissection or other transcervical surgical approaches. With the use of 3-dimensional stereoscopic imaging techniques, neck dissection is herein reviewed with an emphasis on understanding the anatomic relationships of the critical structures within the neck. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tracheotomy is a very common surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the anterior tracheal wall and skin to create an airway. The indications for this procedure include prolonged endotracheal intubation, upper airway obstruction from any cause, improved pulmonary toilet, and in the setting of certain otolaryngologic procedures to facilitate access to the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx, and may in some cases be required urgently or emergently. The background and basic technique are described herein, with a focus on anatomic features encountered with the assistance of 3-dimensional stereoscopic imaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]