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A novel analytical framework was used to re-examine and extend Cheng, Hardy and Markland's (2009) hierarchical model of anxiety. The modified model was characterized by six first order constructs, with worry, private self-focus and public self-focus representing cognitive anxiety, somatic tension and autonomous hyperactivity representing physiological anxiety and perceived control representing the regulatory dimension. It was hypothesized that these six first order constructs were formative indicators of the second order factors and this hypothesis was tested using Partial Least Squares analysis. Factor validity of the original hierarchical model proposed by Cheng et al. was investigated. Subsequently, items were refined, the hierarchical model extended, and factor and predictive validity investigated further. Prospective data was collected from three samples (N = 174, 516, 43), and a series of factor analyses were conducted including Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Partial Least Squares modeling. Multivariate analysis examined the predictive validity of the model using a performance measure as the dependent variable. The original model revealed a poor fit, with poor item loadings and discriminant validity. Subsequent analysis established a refined 25 item measure, which produced support for a fully differentiated hierarchical model of competitive anxiety. MANOVA revealed a significant effect for the control factor, with those achieving superior performance reporting significantly higher levels of perceived control. A fully differentiated hierarchical model was supported, which crucially depicts the first order factors of competitive anxiety that form the 3 s order dimensions. This provides a model that is a better fit with theory and provides a more refined diagnosis tool for applied sport psychologists. • Measurement and validation of a hierarchical model of competitive anxiety. • A mixed formative-reflective model of competitive anxiety was supported using prospective data. • The self-focus factor of anxiety should include a distinction between private and public self-focus. • This measure provides a method for a more refined diagnosis tool for applied sport psychologists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the relation of perfectionism and anxiety to depressive symptoms in Danish and Swedish male elite football players. Additionally, the relationship between age and the study variables, and differences between elite junior and professional players were examined. Design and Methods. A cross-sectional design was used to survey 323 A-squad and U19 players (M age = 22.08 years, SD = 5.15). The survey included biographical information as well as measures of depressive symptoms, perfectionism (strivings and concerns), competitive anxiety, and social phobia. Results. Results revealed an overall prevalence rate for depressive symptoms among the participants of 16.7%. Moreover, correlation analyses showed evidence of the relationships between depression and perfectionistic concerns, competitive anxiety and social phobia. The results of a mediation analysis demonstrated that there was a positive indirect effect of perfectionistic concerns on depression via competitive anxiety. Significant negative correlations between age and anxiety, social phobia, and perfectionistic concerns were found. Depression, however, was not significantly correlated with age even though elite junior players’ depression levels were significantly higher than those of professional players and they showed higher levels in competitive anxiety and social phobia. Conclusions. Findings of the study indicate that more awareness of mental health in elite football is needed, and that the investigated psychological factors may be a starting point for establishing preventive programs and supportive interventions for footballers suffering from depressive symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attentional training has been used to modify attentional bias patterns in anxious individuals. This study examined the effect of attentional training on anxious archers' information processing using electrophysiological indices. Eighteen experienced archers with relatively high levels of competitive anxiety were assigned to either a training group or a control group. The training group received a 6-week attentional training protocol that was designed to switch attention away from threats, whereas the control group participated in a placebo training. The results revealed a smaller P1 difference wave for the training group in the posttest compared with pretest, whereas no change in N1 amplitude was found after training. The P1 difference wave finding suggests that more similar visual attentional resources were invested in probes replacing positive cues compared with probes replacing threatening cues after attentional bias training. In particular, archers who accepted training deployed similar attention resources to threatening and positive stimuli but those who accepted sham training avoided attention from threatening stimuli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Research has suggested that holistic process goals might help avoid the effects associated with conscious processing of task relevant information by skilled but anxious athletes. This experiment compared the efficacy of holistic and part process goal strategies for novices using a learning paradigm. Design Laboratory-based experimental design incorporating practice, retention and transfer phases. Method Twenty-four males were randomly assigned to a part process goal, holistic process goal or control condition and performed a simulated race-driving task in practice, retention and transfer tests. Results Analyses of variance revealed that performance during practice was similar in all conditions but that the holistic process goal group outperformed the part process goal group at both retention and transfer. Conclusions Compared to part process goals, holistic process goals result in more effective motor learning and performance that appears to be more robust under pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study examined the influence of competition playing venue on the hormonal responses, state anxiety and perception of effort in elite basketball players. Eighteen males from two basketball teams were monitored during two competitive matches that were played against each other on a home and away basis. Salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) concentrations were measured before and after each match. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) test was also administrated prior to each match and session ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were taken post-game. Playing at home was accompanied by elevated pre-match T concentration, as compared to playing away (p <0.05). The matches played at home were also won. Salivary T and C concentrations were similarly elevated across the matches (percent changes from pre to post) played either at home or away. No significant differences in state anxiety and perception of effort were identified between the playing venues. Pre-match T and C concentrations and the percent changes in these hormones were significantly related to somatic anxiety, especially when playing at home (p <0.05). In conclusion, the competition playing venue appeared to influence athlete salivary hormonal responses prior to elite basketball matches. These hormonal responses were associated with player's anxiety state, which might contribute to performance and the eventual match outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Game self-efficacy can help manage dysregulated emotions in competition. • Sports competition anxiety is a multi-dimensional type. • Not all types of anxiety have a negative impact on competition performance. Sports psychology has devoted much attention to studying the relationship between psychological factors and sports performance, yet eSports, as an emerging sport, is still under-researched, and research on eSports players' game self-efficacy, competitive anxiety, and competitive performance is quite rare. To address this gap, this study, based on the multidimensional anxiety theory, explored their correlates. For research purposes, eSports players in China who had participated in the Honor of Kings Champion Cup were invited to take part in the study. There were 232 effective participants in total, and the data were analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling to verify the research hypotheses. The results showed that game self-efficacy was negatively related with three types of competition anxiety (negative appraisal, inability, and opponent performance). Regarding their relationship with competition performance, negative appraisal anxiety was positively related, inability anxiety was negatively related, and opponent performance anxiety was not significantly related. Finally, gameplay self-efficacy was indirectly positively related with competition performance mediated by the three types of competitive anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: To examine the use of relaxation skills by differentially skilled athletes in relation to the deliberate practice framework. Design: Differentially skilled athletes completed a survey about their use of relaxation skills. Method: 150 athletes representing three skill levels (recreational, college, and professional) completed the deliberate relaxation for sport survey, which assessed relaxation on three deliberate practice dimensions (relevancy, concentration, and enjoyment); time spent in different relaxation skills in a recent typical week; and functions of relaxation. Results: Athletes perceived relaxation as relevant to performance, requiring concentration, and enjoyable, and the relationships between these dimensions were positive. Professional and college athletes perceived relaxation as more relevant to effective competition than recreational athletes. Professional athletes engaged in more relaxation in a typical week than college and recreational athletes. In a typical week, autogenic, eastern, and muscle relaxation types were used least, deep breathing, meditation, and imagery relaxation types moderately, and stretching most. Athletes reported the primary functions of relaxation were to cope with competitive anxiety and promote recovery but relaxation was also reported to be used to cope with “everyday” anxieties associated with being an athlete. More physical (e.g., muscle relaxation) than mental relaxation types were used in relation to coping with competitive anxiety, whereas more mental (e.g., meditation) than physical relaxation types were used in relation to coping with everyday anxiety. Conclusions: The study provides support for the sport-specific framework of deliberate practice in relation to use of relaxation skills and informs the current understanding of self-regulation by athletes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objectives: To investigate the efficacy of a motivational general-arousal based imagery strategy in modifying precompetitive symptom interpretations. Method: A staggered multiple baseline single-subject design was employed with five male collegiate rugby union players (M =24.5; SD=3.05). The dependent variable was monitored over a full competitive season via measures of precompetitive anxiety and affect together with follow-up social validation procedures. Results: More facilitative interpretations of symptoms associated with competitive anxiety, and greater self-confidence levels were reported postintervention, together with changes in positive and negative affect. Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of employing individualized imagery with motivational general-arousal content to modify performers'' perceptions of their precompetitive experiences. This effect is proposed to occur directly through adaptive changes in individuals'' psychological response systems and indirectly via the protection mechanisms associated with enhanced efficacy expectations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study reviewed the effects of psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in sport. Meta-analysis and systematic review. PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, ProQuest, and Sage databases were searched for experimental studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using the 12 criteria Cochrane Review Book Group tool. Hedge's g and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated and pooled using a random effects model employing the Hartung-Knapp-Sidik-Jonkman (HKSJ) method. The search strategy identified 37 studies which fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis was conducted on 34 studies after removal of outliers. The results showed an overall small to medium-sized effect for psychological interventions on competitive anxiety in athletes (g = −0.42; 95% CI, −0.58 to −0.25). Subsequent subgroup analyses showed that this finding was robust regardless of experimental design, anxiety measure, anxiety type, gender, country, sport, intervention component, intervention delivery method, and intervention duration. The results indicated that the effects might be greater for athletes of higher levels of competition as compared to those from lower levels of competition. Separate meta-analyses also suggested that there were medium to large-sized effects for cognitive anxiety (g = −0.54) and self-confidence (g = 0.55) intensity, and a small to medium-sized effect for somatic anxiety (g = −0.36) intensity. The findings from this review study provide a robust evidence base for the use of psychological interventions to help reduce competitive anxiety in athletes. Future studies need to investigate how psychological interventions might affect the directional interpretation of anxiety symptoms. • Small to medium effect of psychological interventions on competitive anxiety. • Finding robust regardless of various intervention and participant characteristics. • Effects of intervention greater for higher level athletes than lower level athletes. • Interventions effective for different intensity subscales of the CSAI-2/2R. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A single session of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is feasible to perform in elite athletes under a real world competition. • Findings from this pilot trial presented that anodal tDCS over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) could enhance the mood state and reduce somatic and cognitive anxiety. • In this study, competition-related output of physiological stress markers (salivary cortisol and alpha amylase) were also lower following the application of tDCS. To examine feasibility and potential effects of a single session tDCS over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on competitive anxiety, mood state, and autonomic and endocrine stress responses in elite archer athletes under a real world competition. Twelve male elite archers volunteered to participate in this pilot trial. Participants were randomized in order to take left anodal DLPFC, left cathodal DLPFC, or sham stimulation (the F3 or F4 areas according to the 10/20 EEG International System) in a within-subject study design. This study included three official competitions. About 45 min before the competition, the tDCS stimulation process was started and the participants were stimulated for 20 min with 2 mA current. Psychophysiological responses, including Brunel Mood Scale and Competitive state anxiety inventory-2-revied, were collected 15 min before each competition. Additionally, salivary cortisol (sCort) and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) were collected 1 hour and 10 min before competition as well as 10 min and 1 hour after competition. Findings demonstrated that anodal tDCS was feasible and could lead to enhance mood state (vigor, tension and fatigue) and a decrease in competitive anxiety, as compared to cathodal and sham stimulation (all p < 0.05). However, self-confidence remained unaffected by the tDCS (p > 0.05). Anodal stimulation resulted in a lower salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase response (all p < 0.05). Correlations between competitive anxiety and mood states with physiological stress markers (sCort and sAA) were not significant (all p > 0.05). The present study provides the first preliminary evidence that anodal tDCS over the DLPFC is feasible and could modulate competitive anxiety and physiological stress responses to the acute stress of competition (potentially by a top-down regulation of HPA and SAM systems as well as the vagal system). Findings support the notion that non-invasive brain stimulation might be advantageous to enhance sport performance under competitive situations. However, additional studies in a larger sample size and different sport activities are encouraged to substantiate the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the impact of stress and related psychophysiological responses on competitive performance, psychological interventions that reduce stress and may thus increase athletic performance need to be evaluated. In this pilot study, the effects of a mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) on competitive anxiety, self-confidence and mindfulness, and autonomic and endocrine stress responses to a competition in elite athletes were explored. Twenty-six male elite Wushu athletes (N = 26) were randomly assigned to either MBI (8 weeks) or a wait-list control group. Both groups participated in three competitions at baseline, immediately post intervention, and at a 2-month follow-up. Athletes completed the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 prior to the competitions. Saliva, from which the stress markers cortisol (sCort) and alpha-amylase (sAA) were determined, was collected prior to and after competitions as well as after awakening and in the evening of competition days. Repeated measures ANOVAs showed that the MBI group, but not the wait-list control group, demonstrated an increase in self-confidence and mindfulness and a decrease in competitive anxiety from baseline to post intervention (all p <.001, all ɳ p 2 > 0.39). The MBI group exhibited lower sCort daily levels (p =.001, ɳ p 2 = 0.332) and lower sCort (p =.013, ɳ p 2 = 0.121) and sAA responses (p =.022, ɳ p 2 = 0.119) to the competition after the intervention. Daily sAA was unaffected by the intervention (p =.742, ɳ p 2 = 0.011). These changes remained stable up to the 2-month follow-up. The present pilot study suggested that mindfulness-based intervention might be associated with a diminished physiological and psychological stress responses to competition. Whether this in turn translates to change in performance needs to be examined in future studies with larger samples. Moreover, different sport activities need to be considered before findings can be generalized. • Changes related to an 8-week mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) program in elite athletes are presented. • MBI was related to enhanced self-confidence and mindfulness. • MBI was related to a reduction in competitive anxiety in elite athletes. • Competition-related output of physiological stress markers was reduced after MBI. • MBI-related change in self-confidence predicted stress marker reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]