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In the equestrian discipline of dressage, the behavior encouraged through judging should be based on correct and welfare-centered training techniques. Certain behaviors in the ridden horse result from unclear or conflicting cues from the rider and can be referred to as conflict behaviors. This study aimed to investigate the occurrence of these behaviors during Preliminary, Novice and Elementary level British Dressage (BD) tests, and to examine their relationship with performance evaluation by the judge. Data were collected from 75 dressage tests in November and December 2019. Each test was filmed, and the judges' scores were collected. Between five and seven movements (i.e., small numbered sections into which dressage tests are divided) within each test were analyzed and the frequency of conflict behaviors displayed used to derive a behavior score for each movement. These behaviors were recorded in six subsections: head, ears, mouth, tail, auditory and whole body. Conflict behaviors were seen in 97.6% of the movements analyzed, with horses displaying two or more such behaviors in 83% of movements. There was no significant association found between judge score and overall behavior score but there was a negative correlation between whole-body scores and judge score (Spearman's rank correlation: P <0.001). Horses with their nasal plane in front of the vertical were awarded lower judge scores than those with their nasal plane either vertical (Wilcoxon rank sum test: P <0.01), or less than 30° behind the vertical (P <0.001). Judge scores were significantly higher for movements in which horses had their ears forward compared to those in which ears were held back (Wilcoxon rank sum test: P <0.05) or to the side (P <0.05). No association was found between judge score and mouth or tail behavior. Significantly higher mouth behavior scores were seen within downwards transitions (e.g., canter to trot) compared to movements that involved changing the rein (Wilcoxon rank sum test: P <0.05) or circling to the right (P <0.05). Conflict behaviors occurred in almost all the dressage movements analyzed, but the only association with performance score was when the behavior involved the horse's whole body and/or the head and neck. Behavioral signs of conflict are indicative of compromised welfare in ridden horses and the results of this study suggest that a greater focus on such behavior should be included in dressage judge training and performance evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on an ethnographically inspired approach, the article examines how the organisation of workspaces shapes healthcare work and its embodied everyday rhythms. The data is gathered in a health station, which has been redesigned. We approach the health station utilizing Henri Lefebvre's (1991) theory on the production of space. The article analyses how the conflicting values of a health station are embodied in the workplace, using Lefebvre's rhythmanalysis and the concept of organisational dressage. The analysis shows tensions between conceived space and lived space with their different rhythms. The new health station appears to reshape organisational hierarchies by deepening existing inequalities, such as those linked to gender, age and occupational status. The findings suggest that spatial changes have led to the development of more meta-work, seen in the adoption of new bodily and spatial practices by those involved in patient care to mitigate deficiencies in facilities. The article suggests that meta-work can be interpreted as organisational dressage that requires not only constant cognitive adjustment but also new bodily and spatial practices. The article provides insight into how the economisation of healthcare is grounded in the embodied spatial practices and rhythms of healthcare organisations. • The analysis shows tensions between conceived space and lived space with their different rhythms. • Healthcare workers are burdened with new meta-work to fill in the gaps produced by the activity-based working premises. • Unequal access to workplaces supporting work may turn workspaces into new kinds of privileges and reshape hierarchies. • New spatial arrangements transfer the responsibility for ergonomics from space and furniture designers to the workers. • Experience of health professionals should be recognised as a legitimate form of expertise (lived space). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The superimposed influences of different head and neck positions (HNPs) and rider effects on symmetry in sound horses have not been studied. Our aim was to investigate the effects of HNPs and rider on the symmetry in minimum height of the withers at the walk. Seven high-level dressage horses were studied with and without rider in six HNPs: HNP1, free position; HNP2, dressage competition position; HNP3, flexed poll position; HNP4, over-flexed position; HNP5, extended raised position; and HNP6, forward downward position. Kinematic and vertical ground reaction force data were recorded during 15 s trials on an instrumented treadmill. In mixed models, difference in the minimal height of the withers in early left vs right forelimb stance was modelled as dependent variable. The more restricted HNP3 (T-values 2.62 to 1.98, 118 DF, P = 0.001 to <0.05) and HNP5 (P = 0.002 to <0.05) were generally less symmetrical while unridden and more symmetrical while ridden, compared with the free (HNP1) or forward downward (HNP6) positions. Both with and without rider, when the withers dropped lower in early stance of one forelimb, this was associated with shorter protraction at the start of stance in the ipsilateral hind limb, and shorter stance overlaps between this hind limb and the other limbs during diagonal support, 3-limb support with two forelimbs and one hind limb, and ipsilateral support. HNP effects on withers movement asymmetry differed between unridden and ridden conditions. The considerable variation between horses stresses the need for trainers to use individualized training programs to address horse asymmetry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There are differences in linearly scored traits between jumping and dressage horses. • Linearly scored traits are associated with success in show jumping and dressage competition. • Most associations are linear, but associations with optimal scores also exist. • Breeding for extremes is not optimal for all traits. • Linearly scored traits can be a valuable tool to select horses for sport. The goal for most warmblood studbooks is to produce horses that are internationally competitive in sports like show jumping or dressage. The linear scoring system, describing the horse between two biological extremes, is commonly used for a more objective assessment of young horses in many studbooks. However, few studies have examined the phenotypic association between traits linearly scored at a young age and sport performance, and whether there might be an intermediate optimum on the linear scale. This study investigated the phenotypic association between linearly scored traits and competition performance in show jumping or dressage, using the results of linear scoring from young horse performance tests between 2013 and 2021 and competition data between 2014 and 2021 for Swedish Warmblood horses. Sport performance was defined as lifetime accumulated points achieved in show jumping or dressage competitions. Horses were classified as jumping (J) or dressage (D) horses according to their sires' and grandsires' classification. In total, 48 linearly scored traits, assessed on a biological scale from A to I, were analyzed. The phenotypic association between the linear score for each trait and sport performance was studied using linear models for sport performance including fixed effects of sex, birth year and linear and quadratic regression on adjusted linearly scored trait values. Significant differences in LS means between J and D horses were found for all linearly scored traits except for length of body and five traits referring to leg conformation. For J horses, 25 linearly scored traits (eight conformation traits, three gait traits, 13 jumping traits and one behavior trait) were found to be significantly associated (p < 0.05) with show jumping performance. A majority of these traits (21 out of 25 traits) showed a linear association with performance, indicating that stronger expression (towards A on the assessment scale) was favorable for performance in show jumping in J horses. For D horses, 21 linearly scored traits (eleven conformation traits and ten gait traits) were significantly associated with dressage performance. Most of these traits (15 out of 21 traits) showed a linear association with performance, while six traits showed an association with optimal scores, indicating that breeding for more extreme expression of the specific trait is not associated with better sport performance. These results underline the importance of linearly scored traits as indicator traits of later sport success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of specific head–neck positions (HNPs) in horse riding have been identified to directly affect wellbeing of horses. In the rulebook of the International Equestrian federation (FEI), HNPs with the nasal plane in front of the vertical are mandatory, as well as ensuring horses to be "happy athletes". Deviations from this should be reflected in the scoring of dressage competitions. We investigated ridden elite dressage horses in warm-up areas and during competition, and hypothesised a relationship between the HNP, behavioural indicators and the scores. Forty-nine starters (83%) of an international dressage competition (Grand Prix Special (CDIO5*) at CHIO (Aachen (Germany) in 2018 and 2019) were examined. We analysed HNPs (angle at vertical, poll angle and shoulder angle) as well as conflict behaviour (CB), e.g. unusual oral behaviour (OB) and tail swishing (TS), in the warm-up area and during competition in 3 min-videos (6571 frames). Conflict behaviour was evaluated using the Observer XT with the focus animal method according to an ethogram. Scores given by judges in the competition were noted. Data were analysed with six linear mixed effects models, where phase of competition and year (both factors with two levels) were fixed effects, and the horse was a random effect. Dependent variables were poll angle, angle at vertical, shoulder angle, TS, OB and total CB. Further, we evaluated another three models to evaluate if the vertical angle affected the response variables (TS, OB or CB). Hereby, angle at the vertical (continuous) and year (factor with two levels) were fixed effects, and the horse was considered as a random effect. The horses' nasal plane was behind the vertical more often during warm-up than during competition (−11° vs. −5°; P <.01). Further, the poll angle was larger during competition than during warm-up (28° vs. 24°; P <.01). Horses showed more total CB and OB during warm-up than during competition (count: 163 and 107 vs. 120 and 78 ; P <.01). Horses tended to show more CB and OB when their nasal plane was behind the vertical. Tail swishing was not affected by angle at the vertical. Scores given by the judges correlated with HNPs during competition (R = 0.38; P <.05). These results undermine animal welfare concerns during world class dressage competitions. • Conflict behaviour increases with lower nasal plane angles in elite dressage horses. • Relationship found between head-neck positions and conflict behaviour. • Surprising rule contradiction: tests with small poll angles received high scores. • Urgent need to address animal welfare and enhance solutions in dressage sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to optimize modelling of the highest performance in dressage and show jumping competitions for enabling its use in the genetic evaluation of German riding horses. Genetic parameters were estimated using 4,582,191 observations from 221,132 horses in dressage and 9,997,439 observations from 253,945 horses in show jumping recorded between 1995 and 2014 in Germany. The highest performance was defined as the highest level achieved in competition and graduated by the level of difficulty. To investigate the effect of alternative modelling on genetic parameters for performance and on distributions and stability of estimated breeding values (EBV), eight different statistical models were set up. In these models, the following fixed effects were considered separately and in combinations in addition to the random additive genetic effect: gender, age at the highest performance or maximum age in the competition data, birth year, and year of the highest performance. Models were compared based on Akaike's information criterion (AIC), genetic parameters, and correlations between EBV from full and reduced data. Heritability estimates ranged from 0.21 to 0.24 for dressage and from 0.28 to 0.36 for show jumping. The two best fitted models included year of the highest performance and age at the highest performance or maximum age. EBV for the highest level achieved in dressage and show jumping competitions appear to be valuable in enhancing genetic progress for sport-related breeding goals of German riding horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective horse–rider interactions are a key component of good horse riding regardless of equestrian discipline, but they remain poorly understood in terms of quantifying. The aim of this study was to assess and describe factors of interaction in the rider–horse system at different skill levels for walk, sitting trot, and canter based on the inertial measurement technique. Horse–rider interaction was defined in terms of the time lag of cross-correlation between specific parameters of rider and horse: the smaller the time lag, the better the horse–rider interaction. Ten high level professional riders (PROs) and 10 beginners (BEGs) participated in this study. Based on simultaneous acceleration data and segment angles of rider's segments (pelvis and trunk) and horse's trunk, cross-correlation analysis was used to quantitatively evaluate the interaction for the factors gaits and skill level. The results indicate significant differences in interaction in the various equine gaits. Furthermore, the results of cross-correlation analysis suggest a better horse–rider interaction in roll (sagittal plane) than in pitch (frontal plane), regardless of the investigated skill levels and gaits. However, no significant differences were found between the two examined skill levels after multivariate analysis of variance (Bonferroni post hoc test). The factor skill level showed only statistical tendencies between the interaction of horse's trunk and the rider's pelvis. This study demonstrates the potential of a novel method to determine and characterize the interaction between horse and rider under field conditions. Such quantitative information can be very useful for judges, horsemen, and trainers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, sagittal plane ground reaction forces (GRFs) in ridden elite dressage horses performing ‘collected trot’ and in ‘passage’ over ground were determined. In-ground force plates captured GRF data from four Dutch Warmblood and four Lusitano horses ridden by their trainers. At least three stance phases were analysed for forelimbs and hind limbs per horse. The variables extracted were vertical and longitudinal (braking, propulsive) force maxima, their times of occurrence and the respective impulses for forelimbs and hind limbs. Lusitanos had lower vertical impulses than Dutch Warmbloods in collected trot. Across all horses, passage had larger vertical impulses than collected trot in the forelimbs and hind limbs. Propulsive impulse increased in the hind limbs in passage. Prolonged stance durations in passage contributed to higher vertical impulses that are needed to increase the vertical excursions of the centre of mass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• More stable posture on equestrian simulator of higher skill level dressage riders. • Hand position differs on equestrian simulator in higher skill level dressage riders. • Identifying physical factors that contribute to better dressage riding performance. In dressage riding, rider posture plays an important role in the performance of the exercises. The purpose of this study was to compare physical fitness and posture on an equestrian simulator between different competitive dressage rider skill levels. Participants (ten expert and twelve novice competitive dressage riders) performed a physiotherapeutic screening test and an equestrian simulator test. The expert rider group (G2) had less variability in both left (P =. 002) and right (P =. 021) rein force during medium canter on the simulator compared to the novice rider group (G1). The shoulder angle of the expert riders was larger in all gaits. These findings indicate that the ability to maintain a constant force on the reins and a dynamically stable hand position during riding on a simulator are important indicators for good rider performance. Expert riders presented a trend toward a more stable posture on the simulator as indicated by the reduced trunk variability (P =. 034 vs. CV = 0.011) and smaller trunk ROM (P =. 012 vs. CV = 0.011) and knee ROM (P =. 033 vs. CV = 0.011) in the collected canter and collected walk respectively. These kinematic differences underscore their capability of maintaining a continued and constant force on the reins, but these findings require further research. No significant differences were found between groups in the physiotherapeutic screening. This underlines the difficulty in identifying the physical factors contributing to better rider performance. In conclusion, the current study shows that "stable rein contact" is the main difference between novice and expert competitive dressage riders on the simulator. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horse conformation is considered an indicator of performance, which plays an important role in breeding decisions. Apart from conformation, Pura Raza Española horse (PRE) breeding goal is to improve its functionality, and they are being selected by some studs over the last decades as a dressage sport horse. This process may be accompanied by a mass selection which has probably caused morphological changes in recent decades. This paper has three main aims: To evaluate the development of body conformation in PRE over the last three generation intervals (GI), to evaluate the current morphological differences of PRE selected for dressage competitions by specialized stud farms with others with the others and to estimate the genetic parameters in order to show the response to individual mass selection. A maximum of 26 morphological measurements (MM) from 52,681 PRE collected between 1980 and 2013 were split into three groups of 11 years (GI). The GLM showed that gender and GI were significant factors in all the MM analyzed in the last 30 years. In the current PRE population, gender and belonging to a stud attached to the official dressage improvement program were significant factors for 17 and 16 MM respectively. The heritabilities ranged from 0.31 (angle of shoulder) to 0.80 (height at withers). There 57.5% of the genetic correlations were higher than 0.50. The predicted breeding values were different for dressage and non-dressage subpopulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, lameness has been evaluated in hand or on the lunge, but some lamenesses may only be apparent ridden. The objectives were to compare the response to flexion tests, movement in hand, on the lunge, and ridden in sports horses in regular work, assumed to be sound by the owners. It was hypothesized that lameness may be apparent in ridden horses that was not detectable in hand or on the lunge. Fifty-seven sports horses in regular work and assumed to be sound were assessed prospectively in hand, on the lunge on both soft and firm surfaces, and ridden. Flexion tests of all four limbs were performed. Lameness was graded (0–8) under each circumstance in which the horse was examined and after each flexion test. Fourteen horses (24.6%) were sound under all circumstances. Six horses were sound in hand, on the lunge, and ridden but showed a grade 1 or 2 lameness after flexion of a single limb. Sixteen horses (26.3%) were lame in hand. Twenty-four horses (42.1%) showed lameness on the lunge on a soft surface, and 23 horses (40.4%) were lame on the lunge on a firm surface. Twenty-seven horses (47.4%) showed lameness ridden; seven (12.3%) were only lame ridden. There was no significant association between age ( P = .09) or work discipline ( P = .1) and lameness. It was concluded that freedom from lameness in straight lines is not a reliable indicator of soundness. Some lamenesses are only apparent ridden. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rein tension signals are commonly used to communicate the intended speed, direction, and head carriage to the horse during horseback riding. Rein tension has previously been recorded relative to gait, exercises, and turning maneuvers. The aim of this study was to target the between-gait and between-exercise variation in rein tension, controlling for riders and horses within riders, the between-rein variation, and the general within-gait or exercise variation, during entire riding sessions. Eight riders with 3 horses each were included in the study and each horse was fitted with a custom-made rein tension meter fastened on leather reins. Rein tension data and video films were collected during the riding session, and the video films were scrutinized and categorized according to ridden exercises. Statistics used to model rein tension in mixed models were “median”, area under curve, averages of 2 and 25 percentiles (“low”) and of 75 and 98 percentiles (“high”), and the difference between 98 and 2 percentiles (“range”). Fixed effects were rein, gait, rider's position, horse level, and type of ridden exercise, and random effects were horse-side, rider, horse, and trial within horse. The analyses demonstrate substantial variation between gaits, rider position within gait, and between riders and horses. Considering data on short reins, the major determinants found for amount of rein tension was gait (walk [median 12 N both reins]

Objectives: To observe postural characteristics of female dressage riders, through application of three-dimensional motion analysis and to assess the effects of athletic taping on postural asymmetry during sitting trot. Design: Randomised cross-over. Setting: Data collection took place at Myerscough Agricultural College in an indoor riding area. Participants: Ten healthy female experienced dressage riders participated. Main outcome measurements: Movement kinematics of the trunk and pelvis, pre and post taping intervention. Results: Riders presented pre-intervention with asymmetric movement characteristics through dynamic observation of trunk and pelvic postures during sitting trot. There was a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the range (°) of trunk lateral-flexion following tape intervention applied over the thoracic spine. Conclusion: This study supports the quantification of dynamic postural characteristics of dressage athletes by three-dimensional motion analysis. Asymmetrical postures occur within dressage riders when performing sitting trot. The application of tape to 'align' asymmetry altered riders' postures. Taping over the thoracic region resulted in a compensatory increase in motion through the lumbar region. Clinicians should approach the application of postural taping with an awareness of the restrictive mechanisms of tape. Findings may help clinicians determine whether technique/type of tape applied is suitable for achieving marginal gains in the alignment of posture in competitive dressage athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflict behavior (CB) is a response exhibited by animals that experience difficulty coping with mental or physical discomfort and is most often demonstrated as some form of resistance to handling or training cues and/or equipment. In equestrian sport, Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI) code of conduct for the welfare of the horse stipulates that “… horses must only undergo training that matches their physical capabilities and level of maturity for their respective disciplines.” The objective of this study was to determine the incidence of CB in horses participating in elite equestrian competition. The behavior of 150 horses (N = 100 during show jumping and N = 50 during dressage top-level competitions) was monitored via FEI TV transmissions. We assessed the occurrence of specific CBs in each horse including head shaking, pulling the reins out of the rider's hands (PR), gaping, and tail swishing (TS) per second during competition. In jumping competitions, the CB occurrence associated with each type of obstacle (fence) was divided by the total number of obstacles of that same type. In dressage competition, CB occurrence associated with a given dressage movement was divided by total time (pooled duration in seconds) associated with the movement. Percentage of the time where each horse presented with low head position and with the nose behind the vertical was also recorded. The data indicated that jumping and dressage competitions differed in the occurrence of studied CB per second of the course or test (head shaking, P = 0.0279; PR, P < 0.0001; TS, P < 0.0001, and gaping, P < 0.0001). In show jumping, PR was most frequent and vertical and combination fences were the more problematic obstacles. In dressage, TS was most frequent, whereas other CBs occurred only sporadically. Although TS was observed significantly more often during the complicated dressage movement phases compared with less complicated movement phases, there were no differences in the occurrence of CB in particular movements within the groups of more and less complicated dressage movement phases. Dressage horses were ridden more often ( P < 0.0001) in low head position and with nose behind the vertical compared to show jumping horses. Both the percentage of time with head in low position and the nose behind the vertical were positively correlated ( r s = 0.50; P = 0.0002) although there was no relationship between these parameters and the occurrence of CB in either jumping or dressage. However, the high incidence of CB observed in elite jumping and dressage competition suggests that many horses may not be sufficiently prepared for competition in line with the FEI code of conduct guidelines. Clearly, this could lead to welfare concerns for the horses within these equestrian disciplines. Finally, we suggest that the occurrence and/or the extent of CB exhibited by horses participating in elite jumping and dressage sport require further scrutiny in terms of the FEI code of conduct guidelines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among veterinary surgeons, interest has recently increased in the role of the horse's neck as a causative factor in complex locomotor disturbances. Specifically, controversy surrounds the trend for the head to be carried behind the vertical (BHV) in contravention of Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) rules. The aim of this study was to determine whether the head angulation of elite dressage horses has changed over the last 25 years, and whether head angulation correlates with the competition score awarded. Head angle was measured from videos recorded during the Grand Prix test at the 1992 Olympic Games and the 2008 World Cup Final, during collected canter (CC), collected trot (CT), passage (Pa), and piaffe (Pi). Head angulations were BHV in CC and CT in both 1992 and 2008. The likelihood of being BHV during Pa or Pi was significantly greater in 2008 than in 1992 (P< 0.05). Higher scores correlated significantly with head positions that were further BHV during Pi in 2008 (P<0.05). Head angulations were orientated BHV in all paces in 2008, whereas in 1992 this was only the case for CT and CC. These findings support the hypothesis that, in recent years, FEI dressage judges have not penalised horses for a head position BHV. The findings also support the need for further studies of the effects of head and neck position on the health of horses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data on the feeding, management, and training schedules during the week before the competition were collected via a face-to-face survey of riders competing in dressage, show jumping, or eventing at 1* and 3* level competitions. Data were collected using a pro forma recording sheet, and measurements of horse height, weight, and body condition score (BCS) were also obtained. A total of 158 of 582 riders (and horses) were surveyed, providing a response rate of 27%. The mean height, weight, and median BCS of the horses were 162 ± 1 cm, 533 ± 5 kg, and 6 (interquartile range [IQR], 5–7), respectively. The majority of horses were at pasture, most (68%, 107 of 158) 24 hr/d and fed supplementary feed either once (42%, 67 of 158) or twice daily (54%, 86 of 158). The supplementary feed was predominately a commercial premix feed (90%, 142 of 157) with additional alfalfa chaff or ensiled chopped alfalfa. The horses were offered approximately 60 MJ digestible energy (DE)/d (33–86 MJ DE/d) from supplementary feed. The horses worked for a median of 6 d/wk (IQR, 5–6 d/wk) with one rest day. The median total time trained during the week was 200 minutes (135–265 minutes), which consisted of eight separate training activities. There was no difference in time spent on different activities between the disciplines. Individual training activities were 30–40 minutes, and the median number of competitions per month was 2 (IQR, 2–3). Training workload and pattern of work were similar to reports from other countries, with the exception that many riders regularly added a “hack out” after training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Different head-and-neck positions (HNPs) are discussed in relation to potential welfare issues. To evaluate the effect on welfare, seven Royal Dutch Sport horses were studied in five predetermined HNPs: (1) unrestrained (HNP1); (2) neck raised, bridge of nose around the vertical (HNP2); (3) neck lowered and considerably flexed, bridge of nose pointing towards the chest (HNP4); (4) neck raised and extended, bridge of nose in front of the vertical (HNP5), and (5) neck lowered and flexed, bridge of nose pointing towards the carpus (HNP7). A standardised exercise test (SET) of 34 min consisted of trot, canter and walk. Behaviour was recorded with a pre-defined ethogram and R-R intervals measured using telemetry. Cortisol concentrations were taken at the start, 5 and 30 min after the SET. Behaviour around the SET was scored separately. Conflict behaviours increased significantly during HNP2 when compared with HNP1, HNP4 and HNP7 during the SET, and there was significant negative anticipation before HNP2 and HNP7. The heart rate variability (HRV) frequency domain for HNP2 showed a significantly increased low frequency peak (LFpeak) compared with other HNPs, and there was a decrease in very low frequency (VLF%) compared with HNP1. HNP4 showed a significant increase in LF% and decrease in VLF% compared with HNP1. Saliva cortisol concentrations were significantly increased in HNP2 at 5 and 30 min after exercise. Increased conflict behaviour was mostly observed in HNP2, but there was a raised HRV suggesting a sympathetic shift in HNP2 and HNP4, and increased cortisol concentrations during HNP2 indicated a stress response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Mixed model procedures were used to analyze morphology and gaits records collected in about 18,000 Lusitano horses from 900 studs, over a period of 43 years, and functional records collected since 1998, to carry-out a critical assessment of the fixed effects and selection practices followed in this breed. Fixed effects considered in the analysis of morphology (head/neck, shoulder/withers, chest/thorax, back/loin, croup, legs and overall impression), gaits and final score (computed by summing partial morphological and gaits scores) were stud, year, sex, inbreeding and age. Functional traits analyzed were the scores obtained in working equitation dressage (WEDT) and maneability (WEMT) trials and in classical dressage (CD), where fixed effects were event, level of competition, sex, inbreeding and age. Phenotypic trends were moderate over the period analyzed, with a slight increase in height at withers, and a decline in final score. Nevertheless, differences among years were mostly environmental. Males received lower scores for almost all morphological and gaits traits except croup, with a difference of about −1.7 points for final score relative to females. Sex differences were small for functional traits, with general advantage of males in WEMT and CD, and a disadvantage in WEDT. Considerable differences were detected among studs, especially in their environmental effects but also in mean estimated breeding value (EBV), for morphology, gaits and functionality. The environmental effect of competition level in CD resulted in a progressively lower scoring as the competition became more difficult, while for WEMT the pattern was opposite and differences were minor for WEDT. Inbreeding depression was observed for all morphological and gait traits, but the magnitude of its impact was very small for all traits analyzed, never exceeding −0.1% of the mean per 1% inbreeding. Still, for functional traits the effect of inbreeding was negligible. The EBV for morphology, gaits, WEMT and WEDT show considerable variability, indicating that selection can be effective. For CD, however, the distribution of EBV was narrower. The genetic trend was positive but moderate for all traits, and it was slightly higher for head and neck, overall impression, gaits and final score. As a percentage of the mean, these traits and working equitation trials showed the highest responses, which in the best cases did not exceed 0.2% of the mean per year. Genetic selection differentials and the corresponding selection intensities were very modest for all traits analyzed, with a slightly higher intensity in sires when compared to dams. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Genetic parameters were estimated for morphology, gaits and functional traits in Lusitano horses by uni- and multivariate animal models. Morphological traits considered in the analyses were partial scores attributed to up to 18,076 horses at the time of registration in the studbook and included head and neck, shoulder and withers, chest and thorax, back and loin, croup, legs and overall impression, plus a final score computed by summing the partial morphological scores and the gaits score. The functional traits considered were the scores obtained in the dressage and maneability trials of working equitation (WE, about 1500 records by 200 horses), and classical dressage (12,131 records by 759 horses). The heritability (h 2) estimates for all partial morphological scores ranged between 0.12 and 0.18, except for legs (0.07). The h 2 for final score, height at withers and gaits was 0.18, 0.61 and 0.17, respectively, while for WE dressage trial and classical dressage it was 0.32 and for WE maneability trial it was 0.18. The genetic correlations (r G ) of final score with the different partial scores were generally high (0.56–0.95), while among partial components of morphology they were positive but widely different (0.08–0.77). With the exception of legs, r G between morphology/gaits and functional traits were positive, with a stronger relationship between morphological traits and performance in WE dressage trial (r G between 0.36 and 0.56) when compared with performance in maneability trial or classical dressage. Height at withers had a r G of 0.40 with performance in classical dressage, but lower r G (0.06 and −0.10) with WE trials. Final score and overall impression had moderate to strong genetic relationships with functional traits, especially with WE dressage trial, while gaits had a strong r G with performance in all the disciplines (0.60–0.72). Indirect selection for morphology/gaits to improve functionality was assessed, by selecting for final score or a combined index of partial scores. Compared to direct selection for functionality, selection for final score or an index combining partial morphological scores would be less effective, resulting in accuracies of, respectively, 0.28 and 0.37 for WE dressage trial, 0.14 and 0.38 for WE maneability trial and 0.22 and 0.39 for classical dressage. Thus, an index combining all partial morphological scores would be better than selection for overall final score, but its relative efficiency compared to direct selection would be about 0.7 in WE dressage trial and classical dressage, and 0.9 in WE maneability trial. Lusitano horses maintain considerable levels of genetic variability, and selection for both morphology and functionality should be effective. The favorable genetic relationships existing between morphology and performance indicate that morphology/gaits traits can play an important role in a two-stage selection program, contributing to enhance selection response when the genetic improvement of working equitation or classical dressage is intended. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The effects of hyperflexion on the welfare of dressage horses have been debated. This study aimed to investigate acute stress responses of dressage horses ridden in three different Head-and-Neck-positions (HNPs). Fifteen dressage horses were ridden by their usual rider in a standardised 10-min dressage programme in either the competition frame (CF), hyperflexion (“Low-Deep-and-Round”; LDR) or a looser frame (LF) in a balanced order on three separate test days. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability parameters (HRV), behaviour and rein tension were recorded during the test. Salivary cortisol concentrations were measured 60min before and 0, 5, 15 and 30min after the test. Rein tension was significantly lower in LF and did not differ between CF and LDR; however approx. 15% of recordings in CF and LDR were above the sensor detection limit of 5kg. The horses had significantly higher cortisol concentrations directly after LDR compared to LF. In addition, the horses showed more distinctive head movements, including head waving, during LDR. There were no significant treatment effects on HR and HRV. In conclusion, the results indicate that LDR may be more stressful to these horses during riding. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Differences in kinematics between professional riders and beginners could be found. [•] Professional riders kept their pelvis closer to the mid-position and further forward. [•] Beginners tilted their pelvis further to the right and more backwards. [•] The coupling intensity of horse and rider revealed differences between the gaits. [•] Phase shifts were found between professional riders and beginners. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The possibility of using quantitative kinematic traits as indirect selection criteria for sport performance could be beneficial to perform an early genetic evaluation of the animals. The genetic parameters for objectively measured kinematic traits under field conditions have been estimated for the first time, in order to potentially use these traits as indicators of gait quality in future selection of the Lusitano breed. The repeatability within three different types of training (dressage, bullfighting and untrained) was also discussed. A total of 176 males (4 to 14 years old) were recorded at trot in hand using a 3D videographic system. The speed and 10 kinematic traits were studied (one temporal, two linear and seven angular variables). The genetic parameters of the kinematic variables were estimated using VCE software. The heritability estimates were moderate to high (0.18 to 0.53). The stride length and the forelimb angular variables presented the highest heritabilities (0.49 to 0.53), whereas the hindlimb angular variables revealed the lowest values (0.18 to 0.40). More than half of the genetic correlations were moderately to highly positive (mostly 0.20 to 0.70; up to 0.88 between hindlimb traits). The dressage and bullfighting groups presented the highest repeatabilities (over 0.6) in the majority of the traits, maybe because of the acquired gait regularity expected in animals subjected to specific training, and suggesting a greater influence of the individuals over the kinematic traits studied in these two subpopulations than in the untrained subpopulation. The longer swing phase duration and the larger range of motion of the elbow, hock and pelvis joints observed in the dressage group may indicate a better gait quality of this group, according to FEI (International Equestrian Federation) standards. The bullfighting and untrained groups were more similar to each other in terms of kinematic traits. Selection of young horses for characteristics such as stride length and the hindlimbs traits can apparently contribute to further genetic improvement of the performance of Lusitano breed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The objective of this study was to compare forces and pressure profiles beneath a conventional dressage saddle with a beechwood spring tree and a treeless dressage saddle without a rigid internal support and incorporating large panels and a gullet. The null hypothesis was that there is no difference in the force and pressure variables for the two saddles. Six horses were ridden by the same rider using the conventional dressage saddle and the treeless dressage saddle in random order and pressure data were recorded using an electronic pressure mat as the horses trotted in a straight line. The data strings were divided into strides with ten strides analyzed per horse-saddle combination. Variables describing the loaded area, total force, force distribution and pressure distribution were calculated and compared between saddles using a three-factor ANOVA (P < 0.05). Contact area and force variables did not differ between saddles but maximal pressure, mean pressure and area with pressure >11 kPa were higher for the treeless dressage saddle. The panels of the treeless dressage saddle provided contact area and force distribution comparable to a conventional treed saddle but high pressure areas were a consequence of a narrow gullet and highly-sloped panels. It was concluded that, even with a treeless saddle, the size, shape, angulation, and position of the panels must fit the individual horse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The work describes and compares the conformation traits and gait characteristics in the main native Iberian dressage Purebreds (Lusitano, Spanish and Menorca horses). In total, 4 strides belonging to each of 66 males (4-14 years old) were recorded at handled trot, using a 3D semi-automatic movement analysis system. Principal component analysis (PCA) and intraclass Correlations (iC) were computed. The Menorca Purebred showed proportionally higher limbs (23.8 and 15.1 cm for the forelimb cannon and pastern lengths), the Lusitano Purebred had larger inclinations (66.1°, 37.7° and 47.9° for the scapula and pastern angles), and the Spanish Purebred presented a longer scapula (41.5 cm) and a larger hip angle (132.1°), apparently showing a better conformation for dressage gaits. However, the three breeds presented undesirable tarsus joint conformation (<155.5°) for dressage performance. In general, all of them showed good features in the kinematics of the forelimbs. Nevertheless, the functional capacity of their hindlimbs and linear parameters probably need to be improved for their competitiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper describes the handled walking and trotting kinematics (linear, temporal, and angular traits) of 35 Menorca Purebred (MEN) stallions, and the relationships among these variables is presented for the first time, along with a discussion of the influence of the hind limb pastern angle on kinematic variables at both gaits. For data collection, all animals, aged between 3 and 10 years old and belonging to 28 different studs, were recorded under the same experimental and environmental conditions, using a three-dimensional (3D) semiautomatic movement analysis system. A total of 24 kinematic variables (temporal, linear, and angular) at the walk and the trot and a morphometric variable measured at the mid stance position of walking (hind pastern angle) were included in this analysis. Angle-time diagrams of the hind pastern angle while walking and trotting normalized to stride duration were also obtained. Generally the MEN stallions' forelimb movements closely resembled the movement characteristics of other European dressage performance breeds, while the hind limb locomotion showed a greater likeness to Iberian dressage Purebreds. Despite this, their ability in collection and propulsion at the walk and the trot was relatively low. The hind limb pastern conformation was partially connected to the hind limb movements for both gaits, with an apparently negative effect of excessively upright pasterns on the amplitude at the trot, which indirectly reduced collection ability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The author reviews the existing literature on the hyperflexed position of horses used in dressage competitions to shed light on the debate of whether or not it should be condemned. He found no conclusive evidence to support the belief that hyperflexion in itself produces negative anatomical, physiological or welfare effects. He explains that the exception is when it is accomplished coercively on the horse, calling the position obtained in this manner as Rollkur.

Abstract: The main breeding objective for the Swedish Warmblood horse (SWB) is to produce competitive horses in show jumping or dressage. The aims of this study were to investigate the genetic trends of SWB and the factors affecting the genetic progress. The realised genetic trend was studied separately for stallions and mares using the relative breeding values (RBVs) from the official genetic evaluation in 2009. RBVs were estimated using a multi-trait animal model with results from competitions and two young horse performance tests. The genetic progress increased substantially from the mid 1980s in both show jumping and dressage. The improvement rate was almost twice as high for show jumping as for dressage, 0.056 genetic standard deviation units per year compared with 0.032. The trend of broodmares followed the trend of the un-selected mares; thus the achieved progress was solely due to stallion selection. The stronger stallion selection was a result of the improved stallion performance test introduced in late 1970s, import of high quality stallions, and the BLUP evaluation based on the progenies results at young horse performance test introduced in 1986. For stallions born until 1984 the selection intensity was close to zero, thereafter the selection intensities corresponded to selection of the 5% best stallions in show jumping and the 28% best stallions in dressage. Accuracy at selection was 0.60 in show jumping for both stallions and broodmares, and 0.41 and 0.48 in dressage for stallions and broodmares, respectively. The generation interval was 11.1years for stallions and 10.3years for broodmares. In the future the breeding programme should focus on more efficient use of RBVs for selection of both stallions and broodmares at both young age and when progenies of stallions have been tested. Because of the strongly increased genetic level in the population, high quality stallions can be selected within the SWB population to a higher extent than previously. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Results from a previous study indicated that there are specific arena surface characteristics that are associated with an increased likelihood of lameness in dressage horses. It is important to understand what modifiable arena factors lead to these detrimental surface characteristics. The aim of this study was to describe the use of training surfaces and arenas for United Kingdom dressage horses and to investigate any relationships between arena/surface variables and detrimental surface characteristics. Data from a questionnaire returned by 22.5% of all 11363 registered members of British Dressage were used for the study. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression models were developed with each of the previously identified surface characteristics as dependent variables. Respondents reported that the majority of arenas were privately owned, sized 20 x 40 m and had a sand and rubber surface. The results indicated that wax-coated and sand and rubber surfaces were associated with less detrimental surface properties than sand, sand and PVC, woodchips or grass. Woodchips were most strongly associated with the detrimental characteristic of slipping, and sand with tripping. The findings indicated that any arena surface should have a base, with limestone the recommended surface, and that crushed concrete was best avoided. This information supported previous studies in racehorses that indicated that surface maintenance is essential, especially when many horses are using an arena daily. Problems were less likely if an arena was privately owned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Horses’ fear reactions are hazardous to both horses and human beings, but it is not clear whether fear is influenced more by training or by other factors such as genetics. The following study was designed to detect differences between young, untrained (U) and older, well-trained (T) horses of dressage (D), show-jumping (J), and mixed (M) genetic lines with regard to intensity of reaction and ease of habituation to a frightening stimulus. In five consecutive trials, 90 horses were exposed to a standardized fear-eliciting stimulus where intensity and duration of the reactions were recorded. Repeated measures analysis showed that flight reactions by J were less intense (p <0.05) than those by D or M regardless of training status or age. Habituation to the stimulus over time was not significantly (p >0.1) different between the disciplines, as indicated by similar slopes for all measurements, but reaction vigour declined faster for T than for U. These findings indicate that there may be a genetic basis for less strong, though not shorter-lasting, fear reactions in J compared to D or M lines of horses. Research including the estimation of genetic correlations between traits related to fearfulness and to performance would be required to verify this assumption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This review considers some contemporary training and restraining techniques that may lead to confusion or abuse in ridden and nonridden horses. As competitive equestrian sports boom, the welfare of the horse is under increasing scrutiny. The current focus on hyperflexion of the neck in dressage warm-up has exposed the problems with relying on subjective opinions when attempting to safeguard horse welfare. The discussion also highlights an opportunity for equestrian federations to evaluate practices within the various horse sports. Our review considers numerous examples of unorthodox practices that modify locomotion and posture. It offers a scientific framework for consideration of many contentious techniques in horse sports and emphasizes the role of Equitation Science in generating evidence-based enlightenment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: We used an opportunistic review of photographs of different adult and juvenile horses walking, trotting, and cantering (n = 828) to compare the angle of the nasal plane relative to vertical in feral and domestic horses at liberty (n = 450) with ridden horses advertised in a popular Australian horse magazine (n = 378). We assumed that horses in advertisements were shown at, what was perceived by the vendors to be, their best. Of the ridden horses, 68% had their nasal plane behind the vertical. The mean angle of the unridden horses at walk, trot, and canter (30.7 ± 11.5; 27.3 ± 12.0; 25.5 ± 11.0) was significantly greater than those of the ridden horses (1.4 ± 14.1; −5.1 ± −11.1; 3.1 ± 15.4, P < 0.001). Surprisingly, unridden domestic horses showed greater angles than feral horses or domestic horses at liberty. We compared adult and juvenile horses in all 3 gaits and found no significant difference. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that the longitudinal neck flexion of the degree desirable by popular opinion in ridden horses is not a common feature of unridden horses moving naturally. Moreover, they suggest that advertised horses in our series are generally being ridden at odds with their natural carriage and contrary to the international rules of dressage (as published by the International Equestrian Federation). These findings are discussed against the backdrop of the established doctrine, which states that carrying a rider necessitates changes in longitudinal flexion, and in the context of the current debate around hyperflexion. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Olympic dressage involves “an intimate unity between a human and a non-human” and is scored by a subjective judging process, under the auspices of the Fédération Equestre Internationale whose Code of Conduct declares the welfare of the horse as paramount. Dressage is of particular interest to equitation scientists and equine ethologists because it embodies the full range of the stimulus-response contingencies that operate in all of the Olympic disciplines. In Fédération Equestre Internationale dressage competition, collective marks are awarded across four domains immediately after each performance. Collective marks are designed to summarize the performance of horse and rider and must reflect the qualities of the entire performance. They are derived from the observation of the judges of the separate test movements. The 4 collective marks include: (1) paces; (2) impulsion; (3) submission; and (4) the rider''s position and seat; correctness and effect of the aids (rider signals). The definition of submission in this context makes reference to lightness and other qualities that align with optimal ridden horse welfare. We assessed the characteristics of these marks in horses competing in the 2008 Olympic Games Grand Prix (GP; n =46) and Grand Prix Special (GPS; n =25) dressage competitions. We also examined the effect of judge location and used Pearson correlation coefficients to explore relationships between collective marks and test-movement scores. All 4 collective marks correlated with each other significantly (P <0.001). The weakest correlation was between paces and submission (r =0.22) and the strongest between impulsion and rider position scores (RPS) (r =0.59). In the GP, paces and submission scores were less correlated with test movement scores than the impulsion and RPS scores. In the GPS, submission scores were less correlated with individual movements than the other collective marks. Indeed, they failed to significantly correlate with 19 of 32 movement scores (P <0.05). RPS varied most in the GP (standard deviation=0.73) whereas submission scores varied most in the GPS (standard deviation=0.65). A REML analysis across both competitions showed all collective marks were significant in predicting final percentage scores but submission (F =31.27) made the least significant contribution (paces, F =61.3; impulsion, F =69.77; RPS F =53.01; P <0.001 for all values). These results speak of considerable variability in judging and suggest that, despite the relevance of submission to horse welfare, judges have considerable difficulty scoring in this domain and aligning their scores with overall performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

For many years, the breeding value estimation for Swedish riding horses has been based on results from Riding Horse Quality Tests (RHQTs) of 4-year-olds only. Traits tested are conformation, gaits and jumping ability. An integrated index including competition results is under development to both get as reliable proofs as possible and increases the credibility of the indexes among breeders, trainers and riders. The objectives of this study were to investigate the suitability of competition data for use in genetic evaluations of horses and to examine how well young horse performance agrees with performance later in life. Competition results in dressage and show jumping for almost 40 000 horses from the beginning of the 1960s until 2006 were available. For RHQT data of 14 000 horses judged between 1988 and 2007 were used. Genetic parameters were estimated for accumulated competition results defined for different age groups (4 to 6 years of age, 4 to 9 years of age and lifetime), and for different birth year groups. Genetic correlations were estimated between results at RHQT and competitions with a multi-trait animal model. Heritabilities were higher for show jumping than dressage and increased with increasing age of the horse and amount of information. For dressage, heritabilities increased from 0.11 for the youngest group to 0.16 for lifetime results. For show jumping corresponding values increased from 0.24 to 0.28. Genetic correlations between competition results for the different age groups were highly positive (0.84 to 1.00), as were those between jumping traits at RHQT and competition results in show jumping (0.87 to 0.89). For dressage-related traits as 4-year-old and dressage competition results the estimated genetic correlations were between 0.47 and 0.77. We suggest that lifetime results from competitions should be integrated into the genetic evaluation system. However, genetic parameters showed that traits had changed during the over 35-year period covered due to the development of the sport, which needs to be considered in future genetic evaluations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Genetic evaluation of sport horses for dressage competition and estimation of breeding values are performed in many Northern European countries. To date, no such system has been used in GB. The aim of this study was to estimate genetic parameters for performance in dressage competition and then to predict breeding values for horses competing in dressage in GB using an animal model. The percentage of marks awarded was used as the performance measure. Random effects comprised additive genetic, horse permanent environment, class, event and class–event interaction. Horse gender, age, height and competition standard were included as fixed effects. In a second model, breed class was added as a fixed effect. Heritability (SE) of performance in the two models was 0.15 (0.018) (no breed) and 0.11 (0.036) (including breed). In both models age was significantly associated with performance (P <0.001), with performance peaking at age 10. Stallions performed significantly better than geldings. A significant association between performance and height was detected only in the model which did not include breed effects. The model including breed was considered to be the most appropriate, given the nature of the sport horse population in GB. It should be possible to predict breeding values of sufficient accuracy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Advanced riders had greater hip extension in the outside leg in shoulder-in. • Advanced riders had greater external rotation in their outside hip in shoulder-in. • Advanced riders had reduced external rotation in their inside hip in shoulder-in. • Hip extension and rotation reflect an important cue in achieving shoulder-in. • Harmonics were altered in shoulder-in. In equestrian sports the novice rider learns first to follow the movements of the horse's back and then how to influence the horse's performance. One of the rider's challenges is to overcome inherent horse and/or rider asymmetry patterns when riding in straight lines, mirroring the movements on the left, and right sides when turning. This study compares the performance of novice and advanced riders when riding in sitting trot on straight lines and when riding shoulder-in to the left and right sides. Eight novice and eight advanced horse-rider combinations performed sitting trot in a straight line, shoulder-in left and shoulder-in right while wearing a full body set of inertial sensors. An experienced dressage judge indicated when the movements were being performed correctly and assigned scores on a scale of 0-10 for the quality of performance. Kinematic data from the inertial sensors were analyzed in time and frequency domain. Comparisons were made between trotting on the straight, shoulder-in left, and shoulder-in right. Advanced riders received higher dressage scores on all three movements, but significantly (P <. 05) lower scores were found for shoulder-in right across the two groups. When riding shoulder-in, advanced riders had greater hip extension (advanced = -5.8 ± 17.7; novice = 7.8 ± 8.9 degrees) and external rotation (advanced = -32.4 ± 15.5; novice = -10.8 ± 13.2 degrees) in the outside leg compared with novices (P <. 05), which reflects an important cue in achieving the required body rotation in the horse. Lower scores for shoulder-in right may be linked to significant (P <. 05) changes in harmonics of trunk to pelvis rotation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Competition data on UK eventing horses were used to estimate genetic and phenotypic parameters. Penalty points from each of the three phases – dressage, showjumping and cross country – and overall competition were converted to normal scores for analysis. Because horses compete at different levels each phase was separated into 4 different grades of competition — pre novice, novice, intermediate and advanced, where pre novice is the lowest grade and advanced the highest. Data were analysed with an antedependence model of order 1 using ASReml. Fixed effects were sex, age and competition and the random effects were sire, horse and rider. Results showed heritabilities significantly different from zero for dressage (0.09–0.11), showjumping (0.08–0.23), cross country (0.02–0.03) and overall competition (0.05). Correlations between the grades for each phase were high, suggesting that it should be possible to predict a horse''s performance at advanced level by its performance at novice and pre novice level. Correlations between each phase were highest between the showjumping and cross country phases. For the first time, the proportions of variance attributed to the rider, permanent environmental effect and genetics of the horse were estimated separately. These estimates showed that for most grades and phases the most important component was the permanent environmental effect, with the rider and genetics becoming more important as the grades become more challenging. The rider effect was greatest for dressage and the genetic effect was greatest for showjumping. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of the current study was to investigate the efficacy of Trichophyton verrucosum vaccine in hunter/jumper and dressage horses with trichophytosis caused by Trichophyton equinum (cross immunity). A total of 25 hunter/jumper and dressage horses between the ages of 2 and 14 years, naturally infected with Trichophyton equinum, were enrolled and randomly assigned to either a placebo or an intramuscular lyophilized Trichophyton verrucosum vaccine group. Clinical evaluations were done by the same investigator, who scored clinical healing at the beginning, during, and at the end of the treatment and was blinded to allocation to the groups. At the end of the trial, vaccine treatment significantly decreased the investigator''s clinical scores (P < .001), and no significant changes were detected in the placebo treatment group. In all of the horses vaccinated, the lesions improved gradually within 7 to 12 days after vaccination. Complete clinical remission was detected within 28 to 42 days, and all treated horses became culture negative within 25 days of starting treatment. No clinical healing was observed in nine untreated control horses throughout the study. No recurrence was observed in treated horses within 10 months after therapy. Results of the current study indicate that inactivated Trichophyton verrucosum vaccine may be a safe and effective therapy for horses with Trichophyton equinum infection. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Genetic parameters for traits evaluated at the studbook entry inspection and genetic correlations with dressage and show-jumping performance in competition were estimated. Data comprised 36,649 Warmblood horses that entered the studbook between 1992 and 2002. The genetic analyses were performed using univariate and bivariate animal models. Heritabilities of the studbook entry traits were estimated in the range 0.15–0.40. The movement traits showed moderate to strong mutual genetic correlations, whereas the genetic correlations of movement traits with free-jumping traits were weak to moderate. The free-jumping traits showed strong to very strong mutual genetic correlations. Competition results of 33,459 horses with performance in dressage and 30,474 horse with performance in show-jumping were linked to the studbook entry data to estimate the genetic relationship with performance in competition. Heritability estimates for dressage and show jumping were 0.14. Genetic correlations of the movement traits with dressage were moderate to strong, and with show-jumping weak to moderate. Genetic correlations of the free-jumping traits with dressage were weak to moderate and unfavourable. The free-jumping traits were genetically strong to very strong correlated to show-jumping. It was concluded that a selection of the traits evaluated at the studbook entry inspection will favourably contribute to estimation of breeding values for sport performance. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Genetic parameters for traits evaluated at the First Stallion Inspection (FSI) and genetic correlations with dressage and show-jumping performance in competition were estimated. Data comprised 2361 stallions with FSI-observations from 1994 through 1999. Genetic analyses were performed using univariate and bivariate animal models. Heritability estimates of the FSI-traits ranged from 0.25 to 0.61. FSI-traits related to gaits showed strong genetic correlations (above 0.70) and FSI-traits related to free jumping had correlations close to unity. Competition results of 23,897 horses with performance in dressage and 22,811 horses with performance in show-jumping were linked to the FSI data to estimate the genetic relationship with performance in competition. Heritability estimates for dressage and show-jumping were 0.14. Genetic correlation between FSI-gaits and dressage in competition were positive, ranging from 0.37 to 0.72. Genetic correlation between FSI-jumping traits and show-jumping were all above 0.80. FSI-jumping traits showed negative correlations with dressage (about −0.48). FSI-gait traits showed negative correlations with show-jumping, except for canter. It is concluded that selection at First Stallion Inspection comprises an important component of the stallion selection program, because FSI-traits have good genetic relationships with performance in competition and, due to the number of animals involved, relative high selection intensities can be achieved. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Results from performance tests and competitions of young horses are used by major European warmblood horse breeding associations for genetic evaluations. The aim of this review was to compare genetic parameters for various tests of young horses to assess their efficiency in selection for dressage and show-jumping. Improved understanding of genetic information across countries is also necessary, as foreign trade with semen is rapidly increasing. The review is based on inquiries to European breed associations and on (17) scientific publications available, which have analysed genetic parameters of young horse data and/or relationships between young and mature horse results in sport. Despite differences in testing methods of young horses, results for major horse populations were in good agreement. Specially designed young horse performance tests, including stallion tests, showed high heritabilities and high genetic correlations with later competition results. We recommend that test results are encouraged to be used across countries for genetic evaluation of imported stallions and semen. Short station tests are generally preferred when selecting stallions for both dressage and jumping traits, whereas competition data may be used when selecting for only one discipline. We also recommend that extensive field testing of young horses is encouraged and should include both genders. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The impact of head and neck position (HNP) on horse welfare has received much attention in the scientific literature within the last two decades. Studies have identified physiological and behavioral signs of distress in horses ridden for prolonged time in an HNP with their noseline behind the vertical (BTV), which may compromise their welfare. The objective of this study was to compare potential differences of HNPs shown in horse sales photographs advertised in an Australian horse sales magazine (Horse Deals) from the years 2005 and 2018. In addition, factors potentially impacting HNPs, such as type of tack presented in (e.g., noseband type), riding discipline, and competition experience of the horse, were investigated. The sample population (n = 570) comprised horses ridden with headgear and bit in walk, trot, or canter/gallop, advertised in an Australian horse sales magazine. Issues from April 2005 and October/November 2018 were selected. Head and neck position was categorized as BTV, on the vertical (OV), slightly in front of the vertical (IFV), or extremely in front of the vertical (EIFV; any HNP >30° IFV). Data were analyzed using the chi-squared test and post hoc testing via a multiple regression approach through SPSS and test of proportions via the Z-score calculator for two independent population proportions. Analysis of combined data from years 2005 and 2018 showed 47.0% (n = 570) of the horse sample population were advertised with HNPs BTV. Behind-the-vertical HNP was observed as the predominant HNP (57.8%; n = 268) in the warmblood/eventers/show/performance (WESP) category (P <.0005). In 2005, 53.4% (n = 303) of the sample population were ridden BTV compared with 39.7% (n = 267) in 2018 (P <.001), 12.9% (n = 303) were OV in 2005 compared with 15.0% (n = 267) in 2018 (P >.05), and 10.9% (n = 303) were IFV in 2005 compared with 27.3% (n = 267) in 2018 (P <.0004). These results suggest a positive development with fewer vendors/riders selecting images where the horse's nose was BTV. However, this may be explained by the larger proportion of horses advertised in the WESP category in 2005 (63.0%; n = 303) versus 2018 (28.5%; n = 267), and the WESP category predominantly comprised of dressage, jumper, and eventing horses. In addition, the reduction of HNPs BTV from 53.4% (n = 303) in 2005 to 39.7% (n = 267) in 2018 could be attributed to the observation that in 2018, a larger proportion of horses were listed in categories that do not require the horses to be worked with a flexed HNP referred to as "on-the-bit" (e.g., western, endurance, Australian sStock horses). The HNP BTV remains preferential by a substantial proportion of the horse-owning public when advertising horses for sale, particularly in disciplines where the horse is worked in a flexed HNP or "on-the-bit." • Behind-the-vertical (BTV) head and neck position prevalence reduced in 2018 compared with 2005. • Forty-seven percent of vendors used photos depicting their horse in BTV head and neck position (HNP). • Behind-the-vertical HNP was mainly observed in the warmblood/eventers/show/performance horse category. • Head and neck position was not linked to training/experience level of the advertised horse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limited research has been undertaken to determine the impact of horse age, sex, and number of riders on horse performance in British Eventing (BE) horse trials. Improved understanding of this can aid professionals in planning a competition horse's career. To investigate the impact of age, sex, and number of riders on the peak performance of horses at each of the main levels of BE competitions. The best score from each horse competing in BE horse trials in the years 2008–2018 was recorded, and principal component and hierarchical cluster analysis was performed. Basic data analysis was used to identify variables associated with particular better-performing clusters of horses. The interplay of the combinatory variables was then used to map out the trends in career trajectory for horses competing at each level of competition in the best-performing and worst-performing clusters. The peak performance of mares was worse than geldings and stallions at all levels. At Novice to Advanced, stallions did not perform as consistently with multiple riders as geldings. The age at which the best-performing groups peaked was similar for mares and geldings in all classes, although stallions peaked at an older age than mares and geldings at Novice and Intermediate level. All horses were a minimum of 4-years-old at the time of competition, as per BE rules. • Geldings and stallions perform better than mares at British Eventing horse trials • Stallions may have more rider-specific performance, particularly at Advanced • Age is less important at Advanced, suggesting experience may compensate for age • The age of peak performance is relatively consistent for each sex in each class, including BE90, BE100, Novice, Intermediate, and Advanced [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The stirrup iron has the potential to modify the forces experienced by a horse and rider during ridden exercise. A range of stirrup designs are available, but no previous studies have investigated if these modifications influence riders' position and interaction with the horse. Novel flexible (F) or flexible and rotatable (FR) irons versus traditional (T) stirrups may positively impact the welfare and performance of the horse and rider. Four riders rode using the three stirrup types (T, F, and FR). Hip, knee, and ankle angles and toe position from film, and the normal force exerted bilaterally on force sensors on the stirrups tread were evaluated at the highest (HP) and lowest point (LP) of the posting trot (n = 4) and canter (n = 2). Statistics included Shapiro-Wilk's test, Friedman's test, and Wilcoxon signed rank test (significant at P <.05). No significant difference was seen between joint angles, toe position, or forces between the types of stirrups. At the HP, mean hip, knee, and ankle angles were 169.4° ± 10°, 150.7° ± 9.7°, and 94.5° ± 9.6°, and 139.1° ± 9.6°, 123.9° ± 10.9°, and 92.7° ± 9.5° at the LP. Riders had an 8.74° ± 6.66° difference of right versus left joints. Right toes rotated more laterally (P =.02) regardless of stirrup type. The mean trot and canter forces applied (N)/body weight (N) were 0.72 ± 0.15 (HP), 0.19 ± 0.15 (LP), and 0.18 ± 0.05 (canter). Riders shortened the stirrup leathers with F or FR. Stirrup style minimally impacted rider position or the forces experienced; however, forces differed by gait. Future studies regarding how a rider's experience and painful joints may contribute to asymmetries are warranted. • Stirrup iron style does not significantly impact joint angles at the posting trot. • Stirrup iron style does not significantly impact normal forces at the posting trot. • The pattern of stirrup force data generated at the canter is asymmetrical with the outside stirrup experiencing more forces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Classical dressage and the schools above the ground as performed in the Spanish Riding School (SRS) in Vienna, require special psychological and physical properties from riding horses. To document the training and performing level of the Lipizzan riding stallions from the SRS in Vienna, we analyzed the horses' performance traits retrieved from chief riders' evaluations in relation to training levels and age classes and we studied the interplay of performing status with the horses' body shape. In total, the mean age of all 80 riding stallions was 11.9 years (min 4 years, max 26 years). Completely trained stallions (competition level S and higher) were on average 15.6 years old (min. 10 years and max. 26 years). From 10 recorded performance traits (five physical traits and five psychological traits), walk, trot, and collection ratings showed significant differences for levadeurs, caprioleurs, and courbetteurs; the psychological traits reactability, diligence, and sensibility showed significant differences between age class (3–4 years, 5–8 years, 9–16 years, >16 years) and number of flying gallop changes. Further we found that 80% of the chief riders' ratings of physical performance traits reached significant levels in the shape regressions, indicating an association of their ratings with body shape variation. The resulting mean body shapes from the significant regressions illustrated the requirements of the school above the ground and the classical dressage on the horses' conformation. We showed that the evaluation of subjective ratings on valuating scales applying shape regressions can help to optimize the quality of scoring data in equine performance traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors reflect on the horse sport of dressage and animal welfare. They describe the negative impact of bit pressure that does not signal deceleration on horses. They argue that judging deficits can be at the expense of horse welfare and that being ridden behind the vertical is linked to conflict behaviour. The authors also criticize the trend for hyperflexion and recommend the use of information technology for recording animal use and abuse.

The author comments on a study that examined the link between surface properties of dressage arenas and lameness in dressage horses. It is asserted that though the researchers' use of the epidemiological approach is excellent, a more predictive model is needed to account for the effects of surface characteristics on the loading of the internal structures of the equine distal limb when designing the optimal flooring for training and competition. Adopting a model incorporating several aspects of the relationship between horse and surface is suggested.