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Forest carbon sinks can play an important role in mitigating climate change, but currently only a few policies exist globally where economic incentives are created for forest owners to maintain and strengthen sinks. This article aims to facilitate the design and implementation of governmental payment schemes for forest carbon uptake services by presenting a multidisciplinary analysis of the many challenges involved in such schemes and by proposing potential solutions. We assess the consequences, opportunities, and risks of carbon payment schemes from economic, ecological, social, and legal points of view based on existing literature. Our analysis is set in the context of the European Union (EU), but many of the central findings have relevance for a broader geographical area. The main economic challenges of implementing carbon payment schemes relate to potential leakage, the question of additionality, and uncertain forest-owner behavior. The most important ecological considerations include effects on soil carbon dynamics and biodiversity as well as issues of non-permanence and forest resilience. Our exploration of the social acceptance of carbon payments among the general public, key market actors such as forest owners and forest industry, and other stakeholders suggest that both the process of developing the scheme and its details are significant. Further, our legal analysis indicates that central challenges for carbon payment schemes within the EU rise from the requirement to comply with competition and state aid regulations. Finally, we synthesize our findings and suggest a two-step approach for introducing public carbon payments in an EU member state. Initially, the scheme could be launched via De minimis aid or the new aid scheme (GAFSRA). A low carbon price could be applied to moderate market effects, and the payments could be limited to additional carbon storage only. Peatlands, where tradeoffs exist between tree biomass carbon and soil carbon, should initially be excluded from the standard payment scheme, and regulated with command-and-control instruments and measure-based payments instead. In the future, an improved knowledge base and institutional changes may enable schemes that encompass all ecosystem carbon pools on all relevant soil types and create optimal incentives for both forest management and land-use choices by pricing all land-based sinks and emissions. Such schemes could utilize, e.g., cap-and-trade instruments and be complemented by import tariffs to control carbon leakage. • If forest carbon payments are publicly funded, additionality reduces to a question of income distribution. • Peatland soils require a carbon scheme that acknowledges the tradeoff between tree biomass carbon and soil carbon. • Practical guidance is needed to make payment logic and forest management options understandable for forest owners. • Challenges for public carbon payments in the EU arise from the need to comply with competition and state aid regulations. • Carbon payments in the EU could be launched in two stages: Initially using a restricted scheme and later augmenting it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the landscape distribution of aboveground biomass (AGB) in fragmented tropical rainforests in Sri Lanka. While most attribute AGB losses from fragmentation to abiotic edge effects (e.g., desiccation and wind), land tenure and human disturbance also play a significant role. In South Asia, forest fragments are essential food, medicine, and wood sources for large rural populations. Despite this, few studies have addressed AGB dynamics in smallholder landscapes with a long land clearance and cultivation history. This study explored three objectives: (a) assessing the accuracy of a common allometric height-diameter model, (b) comparing AGB stocks in forest fragments to primary forests, and (c) examining the influence of land tenure, abiotic edge effects, and human disturbance on AGB distribution. We estimated AGB using field-based measurements in 18 forest fragments and two primary forest sites and employed mixed effects models to explore the landscape distribution of AGB. The allometric height-diameter model overestimated fragment tree heights compared to measured heights, leading to an overestimation of AGB by 25 %. AGB stocks were significantly lower in fragmented forests (259.9 Mg ha−1) than in primary forests (434.5 Mg ha−1), and there was no significant correlation between plot AGB and variables associated with abiotic edge effects (i.e., distance-to-edge, fragment size, isolation). However, AGB positively correlated with factors related to decreased accessibility and local land ownership. These findings suggest that land tenure and human disturbance strongly influence the current AGB distribution in Sri Lankan rainforest fragments, emphasizing the need to understand human impacts for effective conservation and management. • Forest fragments store as much as 42 % less aboveground biomass than primary forests. • Fragments contain trees with lower wood densities. • Aboveground biomass in fragments is more associated with land tenure and human disturbance than abiotic edge effects. • Recommend including more community-based, local management in carbon projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Examines the extent to which incentive-based projects address equity concerns. • Contextual factors play crucial roles in ensuring equity and social safeguards of incentive-based projects. • FPIC process could reinforce power imbalances and inequalities. One reason for recent opposition to REDD+ stems from concerns about possible welfare impacts on forest-dependent, especially indigenous peoples. We assess how two projects with community payments (PES / REDD+) impacted indigenous peoples (Baka) relative to the locally dominant ethnic group (Bantu) in south-eastern Cameroon, trying to understand to which extent the projects addressed equity concerns. We gathered empirical data through a household questionnaire survey, indepth interviews, and focus group discussions in six villages. Overall, we found little support for the hypothesis that indigenous peoples were disadvantaged by the projects, absolutely and relative to the locally dominant ethnic group, along procedural and distributive equity dimensions. Yet, upfront contextual inequities with respect to technical capabilities, power, gender, level of education, and wealth are key to determining an individual's likelihood of participating in and benefiting from the projects. Our analysis also revealed that more complex and time-consuming free prior informed consent processes could actually come to reinforce power imbalances and inequities. Hence, we call attention to the key role contextual factors play for equity and social safeguards when implementing REDD+ and associated interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tropical forests play a key role in climate change mitigation by sequestering and storing carbon from the atmosphere. In Ethiopia, there are inadequate data in the form of carbon accumulation records or databank to assess the carbon sequestration potential of different forests. This study intended to estimate the living biomass and carbon stocks of woody plants in Chilimo-Gaji Forest. Totally, 10 circular plots with 20 m radius each having 1,256 m2, estimated the biomass of 17 tree species using the nondestructive allometric equation. The total woody biomass of the study area estimated to be 1013.3 t ha-1, of which, about 83.3 % (844.4 t ha-1) was aboveground, and 16.7% (168.9 t ha-1) was below ground biomass. The total carbon stocks and total carbon sequestration potential of the study area was about 506.7 t C ha-1 and 1859.45 t ha-1, respectively. The result indicates that the Chilimo-Gaji Forest has huge potential for carbon stock compared to research conducted on other remnant forests in Ethiopia. This is mainly due to the improvement in the forest stocks as a result of participatory forest management practices in the area. Generally, Chilimo-Gaji Forest is playing a vital role in carbon sequestration, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation. Therefore, in the future, the forest can generate carbon credits as financial benefits to the indigenous population, which could help to strengthen the conservation efforts of forest resources in the study area. The study was conducted to estimate the living biomass and carbon stock in woody tree species of Chilimo-Gaji forest. • 17 tree wood species were identified from the circular plots and used to estimate the tree species biomass using the nondestructive allometric equation. • The total carbon stock of Chilimo Gaji forest is about 506.7 t ha−1 • The total carbon sequestration potential of the study area was 1859.45 t ha−1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Sociocarbon cycles highlight the relations that comprise forest carbon governance. • REDD+ is creating new relations between C atoms, technology and institutions. • More just carbon governance is possible through sociocarbon analysis. Abstract As Indonesia's REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) program unfolds, it is transforming people and places in unexpected ways, and reconfiguring human and non-human processes. In this paper we recognize that forest carbon governance is about much more than carbon. Reflecting on observations from research in Indonesia, we develop the concept of sociocarbon cycles in an effort to move beyond the human-nature dualisms that characterize much work on REDD+. We see carbon governance as emergent sets of arrangements that are continually tested and challenged through the agency of diverse human and non-human actors. Drawing on insights from the literature on socionatures, and in particular on work on hydrosocial cycles, we approach carbon as a socionatural achievement, constituted through relations among institutions, carbon technologies, and C atoms. Our approach recasts REDD+ as an inherently political program, rather than a techno-scientific response to climate change. This, we contend, opens up new ways of conceptualizing and approaching carbon. A sociocarbon lens highlights the importance of social research in reconceptualising biophysical carbon cycles; brings questions of justice and power to the fore (who wins and who loses from carbon initiatives); and aids in understanding what carbon is, how it is made known, and how competing carbon claims are sustained. We suggest that a sociocarbon lens provides multiple points of entry to pursue more just geometries of power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Restoration treatments decrease forest C pools, with limited evidence of recovery. • Long-term carbon loss may be reduced when post-treatment wildfire is present. • Few empirical studies exist at large spatial scales or over time periods >25 years. • The response of deeper mineral soil to treatments remains a major knowledge gap. • Need consistent methodology for measuring and reporting C pools. Abstract Ecological restoration has become an overarching management paradigm for sustaining the health and resilience of forests across western North America. Restoration often involves mechanical thinning to promote development of complex habitats in moist, productive forests and mechanical thinning with prescribed fire to reduce fuels and restore natural disturbance regimes in dry, fire prone forests. This systematic review quantified the impact of restoration treatments on forest ecosystem carbon (C) stocks and identified factors that moderate treatment effects across spatial and temporal scales. Our review process identified 73 studies to be included for analysis, from which we calculated 482 estimates of treatment effect size. We found that restoration treatments significantly reduce C. Prescribed fire had larger impacts on belowground than aboveground carbon pools, while thinning and combined treatments had larger impacts on aboveground pools. The available literature is highly skewed toward shorter timescales (<25 years after treatment), small spatial scales, and is geographically concentrated: 41% of estimated effect sizes came from studies in the Sierra Nevada. Thinning had similar effects on forest carbon in dry forests and moist forests. The relative magnitude of total C losses was significantly less from simulation than empirical studies, although simulations also mostly evaluated long-term impacts (>75 years after treatment) while empirical studies mostly looked at short term (<25 year) effects. Post-treatment wildfire significantly reduced the percentage of carbon lost relative to controls in the aboveground pool. Long-term, treated stands only recovered to control levels of carbon when wildfire was present. Returns on the carbon debt imposed by thinning and prescribed fire depend on the nuances of the treatments themselves but may also depend upon treatment intensity and the frequency and intensity of future wildfire. Ecological restoration in forests across the western US has to carefully balance the budget of ecosystem carbon with competing objectives such as improved wildlife habitat, reduced risk of severe wildfire, and other ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indigenous communities (ICs) have emerged as important players in global efforts to reduce forest carbon emissions, in part because they are viewed as conscientious stewards of the forest lands to which they have legal title. Yet ICs tend to be located in remote areas where deforestation would be limited regardless of who manages them. Therefore, to determine whether IC management actually cuts forest carbon emissions, it is important to control for such confounding factors. To that end, we use propensity score matching and regression to analyze the effects on 2001–2013 deforestation and forest carbon emissions of IC management in the Amazon regions of Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Colombia. We find that IC management reduces both deforestation and forest carbon emissions in Bolivia, Brazil and Colombia. We are not able to discern a statistically significant effect in Ecuador. These findings suggest that IC management can, in fact, help combat climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most proposed climate change mitigation strategies is carbon sequestration by vegetation. This depends on the rate of carbon uptake and transformation in biomass, the rate of release through respiration, and the stability of the stocks to disturbances. Forest diversity influences these factors, in a degree that varies according to certain functional characteristics. The Dry Chaco is the largest dry forest in the world, and one of the regions with the highest deforestation rates of the planet. Our aim was to geographically describe three carbon stock attributes from forest communities of the Dry Chaco Forests in Argentina at the landscape scale: wood density, tree height and annual carbon increase in aboveground biomass, as proxies of forest stability and carbon long-term persistence. In addition, we evaluated the relationships between these attributes and climate features, in the search of potential climate controls. Higher precipitation during the growing season and low mean annual temperature benefited the combination of these three treats related to C storage persistence. The distribution of the most favorable states of the three attributes is centered at the northwestern area of the Dry Chaco. Our geographic description of carbon stocks attributes can contribute to more suitable conservation planning and allows forecasting potential shifts in forests due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing data have increasingly been employed in combination with field plot data to estimate aboveground carbon (C) stocks across heterogeneous forested landscapes around the world. The Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) program of the US Forest Service offers a gridded network of field plots which potentially can be linked to airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data to estimate forest aboveground carbon density (ACD; units of Mg C ha −1 ). Here we utilized FIA plot and airborne LiDAR data sets collected across two contrasting landscapes known as Laupahoehoe and Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a on Hawai’i Island to explore strengths and weaknesses of linking those two data sets to estimate ACD. We varied FIA plot sample designs with respect to sampling density (i.e., the number of plots across landscape) and intensity (i.e., the structural detail within inventory plots) to test the capability of the mapping approach. Results indicated that Laupahoehoe and Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a landscapes supported an estimated 545 Gg C and 157 Gg C aboveground, respectively, and mean ACD values of the wet windward Laupahoehoe landscape (109 Mg ha −1 ) were an order of magnitude greater than those of the leeward dry Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a landscape (9.7 Mg ha −1 ). Patterns of ACD were largely determined by combined factors of precipitation, lava substrate, prior land use, and presence of non-native, often invasive, species. Results demonstrated the relative importance of sample plot density over sample plot intensity, and showed that FIA inventory plots, even at their lowest sample intensity design, can be linked with LiDAR data to accurately estimate ACD across spatially heterogeneous landscapes. We also developed and applied a straightforward, statistically-robust approach to provide error estimates for the 100 million pixels that characterize the Laupahoehoe and Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a landscapes as well as for any sub-units of those landscapes. We contend that augmenting existing FIA forest plot data with airborne LiDAR coverage, even if that requires an increase in plot density somewhat above the FIA standard 1X or 2X approaches, is a feasible, cost-effective, scientifically sound approach from which to obtain accurate landscape- to regional-scale ACD measures across the extensive and heterogeneous forests of the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we present an empirically based and critical investigation of the ways in which a Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) project in Zanzibar takes steps to establish the systems required to produce a forest carbon commodity eligible for sale in the global carbon market. Based on long-term ethnographic fieldwork and in-depth knowledge about REDD+ processes in Zanzibar, we discuss how the commodification of forest carbon is at odds with local norms, practices and social relations at local level in Zanzibar, and show how commodification processes – in a context of highly volatile carbon markets – creates new uncertainties and relations of dependence. We argue that, by converting the local forest into a source of one single commodity for sale (‘forest carbon’), the project reduces the use value of the forest for local women and men, thus undermining the longer-term rationality inherent in local norms and socially embedded forest practices. We indicate that these also include norms that serve to protect forests. In the context of contemporary debates about the functioning of REDD+ and commodification of forest carbon more in general, this article contributes to enhance current understanding of REDD+ practices and impacts at local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest mega-fires have become a global phenomenon in recent decades including in south-eastern Australia where large areas of forest have been fire-killed with loss of human lives and property and impacting carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions. The vast extent and impact of mega-fires has induced a re-evaluation of fuel reduction methods as a key management strategy in wildfire risk mitigation in many countries. This study investigated the impact of a commercial thinning in Eucalyptus delegatensis forest on fuel hazard, fuel loads and wildfire behaviour, eight years after completion of a bay and outrow thinning operation. At the stand level, thinning reduced overstorey tree stocking by more than 50%, increased canopy openness and stimulated the growth of retained trees. Thinning also encouraged the profuse regeneration of over 1000 saplings ha −1 of E. delegatensis, mostly in the outrows, compared with no sapling regeneration in unthinned forest. A system of additive biomass equations was developed to estimate total biomass and component biomass (stem wood, bark, branches and foliage) of individual trees. The aboveground tree carbon was 433 ± 49 Mg C ha −1 in unthinned forest and 322 ± 47 Mg C ha −1 in thinned forest. Thinning decreased surface fuel hazard ratings and fuel loads but had no significant effect on the mass of coarse woody fuels. Fire simulation under severe to extreme weather conditions, as occurred in the 2006/7 Great Divide Fires, indicated an almost 30% reduction in fireline intensity and about 20% reduction in the rate of spread and spotting distance in thinned forest compared with unthinned forest. This study indicates the potential of thinning to reduce wildfire severity and to increase the fire-survival of E. delegatensis . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Very high spatial resolution (VHSR) optical satellite imagery has shown good potential to provide non-saturating proxies of tropical forest aboveground biomass (AGB) from the analysis of canopy texture, for instance through the Fourier Transform Textural Ordination method. Empirical case studies however showed that the relationship between Fourier texture features and forest AGB varies across forest types and regions of the world, limiting model transferability. A better understanding of the biophysical mechanisms on which canopy texture – forest AGB relation relies is a prerequisite to move toward broad scale applications. Here we simulated VHSR optical canopy scenes in identical sun-sensor geometry for 279 1-ha tropical forest inventory plots distributed across the tropics. Our aim was to assess the respective merits and complementarity of two types of texture analysis techniques (i.e. Fourier and lacunarity) on a set of forests with contrasted structure and geographical origin, and develop a general texture-based approach for tropical forest AGB mapping. Across forests, Fourier texture captured a gradient of stands mean crown size reflecting well the progressive changes in stand structure throughout forest aggradation phase (e.g. Pearson's r = − 0.42 with basal area) while lacunarity texture captured a gradient of canopy openness (, i.e. Pearson's r = − 0.57 with stand gap fraction). Both types of texture indices were highly complementary for predicting forest AGB at the global level (so-called FL-model). The residual error of the FL-model was structured across sites and could be partially captured with a bioclimatic proxy, further improving the performance of the global model (so-called FLE-model) and reducing site-level biases. The FLE model was tested on a set of real Pleiades images covering a mosaic of high-biomass forests in the Congo basin (mean AGB over 49 field plots: 359 ± 98 Mg ha − 1 ), leading to a significant relationship (R 2 = 0.47 on validation data) with reasonable error levels (< 25% rRMSE). The increasing availability of VHSR optical sensors (such as from constellations of small satellite platforms) raises the possibility of routine repeated imaging of the world's tropical forests and suggests that texture-based analyses could become an essential tool in international efforts to monitor carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradations (REDD +). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a high degree of uncertainty regarding biomass accumulation and carbon storage potential in secondary temperate forests. Improving this understanding is vital for managing these forests as carbon sinks, a part of climate change mitigation efforts. A critical question is how secondary stand development in eastern U.S. forests has influenced long-term recovery from 19th century agricultural abandonment, and how this has affected aboveground carbon storage and co-varying stand-scale habitat characteristics. To answer this question we employed a longitudinal study based on twelve years of empirical data (2001–2013) collected from 60 permanent monitoring plots within 16 reference stands at Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller (MBR) National Historical Park in Woodstock, VT. We also used 150 years of documentary data from park management records. MBR Park was the first parcel of land actively reforested in the U.S. The Park’s current forest mosaic reflects a history of alternate reforestation pathways and varied successional trajectories indicative of secondary forest recovery occurring across the broader northeastern forest landscape. This research evaluates the effects of reforestation pathways (planting vs. natural regeneration), management regimes (long-term low harvest intensities at varied harvest frequencies), and stand development trajectories on biomass outcomes and late-successional habitat. We generated biometrics indicative of stand structural complexity, including the H ′ structural diversity index, and aboveground biomass (live trees, snags, and downed coarse woody debris pools) estimates. Multivariate analyses evaluated the predictive strength of reforestation pathway, management history, and site characteristics relative to aboveground carbon pools and stand structural complexity. Classification and Regression Tree (CART) analysis ranked reforestation method as the strongest predictor of long-term mean total aboveground carbon storage, while harvest frequency, and stand age were selected as secondary variables. CART ranked percent conifer as the strongest predictor of H ′, while harvest intensity and frequency were selected as secondary variables. Our results suggest that a variety of long-term recovery pathways converge on high levels of aboveground carbon storage, including both conifer plantations and naturally regenerated hardwood stands, but silvicultural management can dramatically alter those trajectories. Total aboveground biomass (i.e., carbon) co-varied with H ′ (R 2 = 0.25). Thus, our dataset showed a positive relationship between forest carbon storage and structural complexity, supporting the concept of multifunctional forestry emphasizing late-successional habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The forestlands of the Pacific Northwest store a significant amount of carbon, provide wildlife habitat, generate revenue for forestland owners, and provide for sustainable generation of forest products. Promoting forest carbon storage is increasingly recognized as a key management objective to mitigate climate change. We developed an agent-based model to examine the effectiveness of current land management practices in sustaining forest carbon storage and revenue flows, and the utility of market-based carbon payments in improving carbon storage while also improving revenue generation in the Pacific Northwest. We find that while market-based incentives can improve both forest carbon storage and revenue, they are limited in their benefit to small forest owners. Our results highlight the crucial need for additional policy interventions to reduce barriers to market access for small private owners and ensure sustainable forest management in this region. We further show that a forest owners' cooperative, which aggregates small owners to reduce the costs of participating in a carbon market, can help overcome these barriers and result in both greater carbon storage and a more equitable benefit from carbon payments. • Forest carbon management is crucial for climate mitigation; forest owners' management practices play a vital role. • We developed an agent-based model of forest owners' management and their adaptations to carbon-focused policies. • We analyze policy effectiveness for landscape-level and forest owner-level carbon sequestration and revenue generation. • We show policy efficacy for carbon storage and revenue generation, and inequitable economic outcomes across owner groups. • We highlight the need and effectiveness of additional institutional intervention to ensure equitable outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Throughfall exclusion did not impose tree mortality, but reduced stem increment. • Reduced soil moisture sharply decreased soil CO2 efflux. • Fine root biomass remained largely unaffected. • Himalayan mountain forests showed overall high resistance to throughfall exclusion. Forests in the Himalayas are a major carbon store, but are under threat due to changes in precipitation regime. To simulate a precipitation decline, throughfall-exclusion (TFE) shelters were applied during three consecutive monsoon seasons in an oak forest (2.650 m a.s.l.) and a conifer-dominated forest (3.260 m a.s.l.) in central Bhutan. Leaf water potentials, tree mortality, stem increment, soil CO 2 efflux, litterfall and fine root dynamics were assessed. TFE significantly and consistently decreased topsoil (0–30 cm) moisture and leaf water potentials of Quercus lanata and Quercus griffithii (lower elevation), and to a lesser extend those of Tsuga dumosa and Quercus semecarpifolia , (higher elevation). TFE did not impose tree mortality. Stem increment remained unaffected until the second TFE year, but showed reductions during the third year with Tsuga dumosa being most severely affected (-60%). Standing fine root biomass stocks were hardly affected by TFE. Increased root necromass and faster fine root growth in the lower elevation forest suggest that the oak trees increased C allocation below ground. Soil CO 2 efflux sharply declined during all three TFE years in both forests. Above ground litter input was unaffected by TFE until the second treatment year. Overall, both forest ecosystems appeared highly resistant to the imposed soil drying, with no signs of tree mortality and stable living root biomass stocks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various restoration programs have been implemented worldwide to recover degraded ecosystems. Nepal implemented a signature policy— Scientific Forest Management (SciFM)—with the aim of restoring and enhancing forest conditions, as well as increasing employment, timber production and economic growth in the last decade. While SciFM might achieve these objectives, it may conflict with Nepal's own biodiversity and emission reduction policies. So far, various aspects of SciFM, such as stakeholders' opinion, policy issues, and financial analysis have been conducted. However, the effect of SciFM in achieving various restoration objectives remains unexplored. Taking a case of Sal (Shorea robusta) dominated forest which resembles productive forests in the lowlands of Nepal, we evaluated land productivity, carbon, and biodiversity outcomes of SciFM. Employing the methods of policy review (n = 6), literature review (n = 35), expert consultations (n = 15), and forest and soil inventory, we found that SciFM has been beneficial for establishing regeneration of Sal. However, in the short-run, SciFM was found to be counterproductive to achieve national objectives of REDD+ (reducing carbon emissions from forestry sector), biodiversity conservation, and land productivity enhancement. Based on our analysis, we have discussed some learning areas from SciFM practices to align with the restoration objectives at a national and global scale. Implications of the findings in the other parts of the world, who are also implementing intensive forest management programs, are highlighted. • Restoration objectives are affected by forest management approaches. • Scientific forest management is promising in regeneration establishments. • Scientific forest management is counter-productive in restoring soil and forest carbon, at least for short-run. • Harvesting intensity should be minimized to achieve multiple outcomes including forest restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bioenergy is a significant source of renewable energy in the U.S. and internationally. We explore whether creation of localized bioenergy markets near existing military installations in the southeastern U.S. could simultaneously address military renewable energy generation objectives while reducing urban encroachment. We model the use of public–private partnerships to stimulate the creation of these markets, in which stable installation demand is paired with stable supply from surrounding landowners. We employ two economic models – the SubRegional Timber Supply (SRTS) model and the Forest and Agricultural Sector Model with Greenhouse Gases (FASOMGHG) – to assess how markets influence forest and agriculture land use, renewable energy production, and greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation at the regional and national levels. When all selected installations increase bioenergy capacity simultaneously, we find increased preservation of forest land area, increased forest carbon storage in the region, and increased renewable energy generation at military installations. Nationally, however, carbon stocks are depleted as harvests increase, increasing GHG emissions even after accounting for potential displaced emissions from coal- or natural gas-fired generation. Increasing bioenergy generation on a single installation within the southeast has very different effects on forest area and composition, yielding greater standing timber volume and higher forest carbon stock. In addition to demonstrating the benefits of linking two partial equilibrium models of varying solution technique, sectoral scope, and resource detail, results suggest that a tailored policy approach may be more effective in meeting local encroachment reduction and renewable energy generation objectives while avoiding negative GHG mitigation consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest carbon (C) density varies tremendously across space due to the inherent heterogeneity of forest ecosystems. Variation of forest C density is especially pronounced in mountainous terrain, where environmental gradients are compressed and vary at multiple spatial scales. Additionally, the influence of environmental gradients may vary with forest age and developmental stage, an important consideration as forest landscapes often have a diversity of stand ages from past management and other disturbance agents. Quantifying forest C density and its underlying environmental determinants in mountain terrain has remained challenging because many available data sources lack the spatial grain and ecological resolution needed at both stand and landscape scales. The objective of this study was to determine if environmental factors influencing aboveground live carbon (ALC) density differed between young versus old forests. We integrated aerial light detection and ranging (lidar) data with 702 field plots to map forest ALC density at a grain of 25 m across the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, a 6369 ha watershed in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon, USA. We used linear regressions, random forest ensemble learning (RF) and sequential autoregressive modeling (SAR) to reveal how mapped forest ALC density was related to climate, topography, soils, and past disturbance history (timber harvesting and wildfires). ALC increased with stand age in young managed forests, with much greater variation of ALC in relation to years since wildfire in old unmanaged forests. Timber harvesting was the most important driver of ALC across the entire watershed, despite occurring on only 23% of the landscape. More variation in forest ALC density was explained in models of young managed forests than in models of old unmanaged forests. Besides stand age, ALC density in young managed forests was driven by factors influencing site productivity, whereas variation in ALC density in old unmanaged forests was also affected by finer scale topographic conditions associated with sheltered sites. Past wildfires only had a small influence on current ALC density, which may be a result of long times since fire and/or prevalence of non-stand replacing fire. Our results indicate that forest ALC density depends on a suite of multi-scale environmental drivers mediated by complex mountain topography, and that these relationships are dependent on stand age. The high and context-dependent spatial variability of forest ALC density has implications for quantifying forest carbon stores, establishing upper bounds of potential carbon sequestration, and scaling field data to landscape and regional scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, LiDAR technology has provided accurate forest aboveground biomass (AGB) maps in several forest ecosystems, including tropical forests. However, its ability to accurately map forest AGB changes in high-biomass tropical forests has seldom been investigated. Here, we assess the ability of repeated LiDAR acquisitions to map AGB stocks and changes in an old-growth Neotropical forest of French Guiana. Using two similar aerial small-footprint LiDAR campaigns over a four year interval, spanning ca. 20 km 2 , and concomitant ground sampling, we constructed a model relating median canopy height and AGB at a 0.25-ha and 1-ha resolution. This model had an error of 14% at a 1-ha resolution (RSE = 54.7 Mg ha − 1 ) and of 23% at a 0.25-ha resolution (RSE = 86.5 Mg ha − 1 ). This uncertainty is comparable with values previously reported in other tropical forests and confirms that aerial LiDAR is an efficient technology for AGB mapping in high-biomass tropical forests. Our map predicts a mean AGB of 340 Mg ha − 1 within the landscape. We also created an AGB change map, and compared it with ground-based AGB change estimates. The correlation was weak but significant only at the 0.25-ha resolution. One interpretation is that large natural tree-fall gaps that drive AGB changes in a naturally regenerating forest can be picked up at fine spatial scale but are veiled at coarser spatial resolution. Overall, both field-based and LiDAR-based estimates did not reveal a detectable increase in AGB stock over the study period, a trend observed in almost all forest types of our study area. Small footprint LiDAR is a powerful tool to dissect the fine-scale variability of AGB and to detect the main ecological controls underpinning forest biomass variability both in space and time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has already begun to impact the structure and function of forest ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest by altering the frequency, intensity, and duration of droughts and heat stress, with implications for widespread environmental and socio-economic change. A major realization is that accumulated physiological stress can ultimately lead to tree mortality and changes in species distributions, particularly in areas away from maritime influences. To ameliorate the effects of drought, insect outbreaks, and reduce the risk of crown fires, various strategies are being tested. To make some of these strategies economical, biomass is proposed as an alternative energy source. At the same time that an increase in harvesting is being considered, there is a desire to increase carbon sequestration by forests to offset, at least in part, greenhouse gas emissions. Assessments are needed to determine current and future impacts of climate change, and to evaluate management options while considering carbon storage benefits and sustainability of ecosystem structure and function. Here we provide an overview of research results from the Pacific Northwest region where forests dominate the landscape and contain among the highest biomass on earth. In this review, we present findings that challenge common assumptions, and suggest a way to predict outcomes of changes in climate and land management in the future. The approach includes the use of observation-driven land system models that integrate the extent that forests are vulnerable to climate change, management practices, and economic considerations. It also requires increased emphasis on in situ and remotely sensed observations and experiments to initialize and test the model, and to track trends in forest condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• a management intensity index was used to examine effects of management on forest C. • C sequestration rates were positively correlated with management intensity. • C stocking was negatively correlated with management intensity. • Forest with high sequestration rates were structurally simple due to management. Managing forests for carbon sequestration is an emerging objective within forestry sectors, although considerable uncertainty remains about how best to influence forest C dynamics through silviculture. This study tests hypotheses regarding forest C management within the central Adirondacks and assesses management trade-offs between aboveground live tree C relative to forest structural and biological complexity. The effects of management on forest C stocks, sequestration rates and structural complexity were assessed using a multivariate metric of management intensity derived from historical harvest records, combined with forest inventory data collected from Huntington Wildlife Forest (Newcomb, NY) from 1970 to 2011. Management intensity was quantified using a principal component analysis on measures of management inputs (harvest duration, total harvest area, number of harvest entries) and outputs (harvested wood volume). The first principal axis was used as a unitless metric of management intensity, which explained 64.1% of the variation in management activity. As management intensity increased, above ground live tree C stocks significantly declined but C sequestration rates significantly increased. Management intensity was correlated with decreased structural complexity. Active management can increase forest C uptake through the distribution of resources to young tree cohorts within a stand, which is consistent with the hypothesis of the C stock-sequestration trade-off. However, structural complexity was significantly reduced in areas with the highest C sequestration rates. These trade-offs should be considered and balanced when implementing management that aims to improve the C storing potential of central Adirondack forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The project 'Tropical Biomass & Carbon' and its main product TB&C App is introduced. • TB&C App is an user-friendly tool that estimates C stored in forests of Brazil. • Model performance analysis proved reliability >95% of the TB&C App's models. • Carbon in Amazonian forests can be accurately and precisely estimated. • A dataset containing 64,000 plots with forest variables is delivered as supplement. This article introduces the Tropical Biomass & Carbon Application – the 'TB&C App', a web application available on the permanent link www.tropicalbiomass.com. The TB&C App requires as input attributes 'the smallest and largest diameters', 'number of trees ha−1', basal area ha−1, and 'parameters of the diameter (beta) distribution' describing stand structure. The App delivers outputs at two levels: (1) Stand level, including mean aboveground biomass (AGB) and carbon (AGC), in Mg ha−1, along with confidence intervals (CIs) as measures of uncertainty, and; (2) Tree level estimates, with AGB and diameter for every simulated tree. Phase 1 of the project TB&C comprises four Brazilian forest (and non-forest) formations: Campinarana, Floresta estacional, Floresta ombrofila , and Savana. This article aims to (i) describe the algorithm written for the TB&C App, and (ii) present results of Phase 1. This first phase counts on a standardized database of 1,428 trees with field-measured dry AGB, from plots across the different formations, which is the largest tree-biomass database compiled so far in Brazil. Model uncertainties were incorporated into the modeling process, allowing computation of CIs through an uncertainty approach. The total variance of residuals of AGB was also modeled, aiming at predicting CIs as a function of the quantity of AGB. An analysis of reliability of the equations implemented in the TB&C App indicates that more than 95% (n = 64,000) of the true AGB's fit into the CI outputted by the TB&C App. A comparison with other approaches in the literature shows significant agreement with previous estimates and more conservative estimates where previously-published estimates disagreed with the TB&C App. We cite as advantages of the TB&C App; (i) reliability of the outputs, (ii) a user-friendly layout, (iii) AGB and AGC estimates provided along with robust CIs, and (iv) estimates at the stand and tree levels with consistent totals. A biomass dataset containing information on 64,000 plots is also delivered as supplement of this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three years of monthly growth increment data identified large interannual differences in growth rate across six contrasting species in a broadleaved, temperate forest with minimum management intervention (Wytham Woods, UK). Growth rates varied by species and canopy position, and were higher in canopy species. Growth rate in 2010 was up to 40% lower than in 2011 and 2012. This can best be explained as an effect of low temperature, which delayed the start of spring and the growing season. This had a greater impact on the growth of sub-canopy trees than that of canopy species. In temperate systems, late spring and summer is an important component of the whole growing season carbon balance because of long day length. In 2010 there were also periods of lower-than-average rainfall, which may additionally have constrained growth during the growing season. Fluctuations and seasonal changes in both temperature and rainfall are projected to continue, so we may expect to see increasing differences in growth and growth rates. A small effect of location relative to the nearest edge was also detected, with higher growth rates only found >50 m from the forest edge. The findings have implications for forest structure and productivity under climate change, and may thus inform current and future forest management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While bioenergy plays a key role in strategies for increasing renewable energy deployment, studies assessing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from forest bioenergy systems have identified a potential trade-off of the system with forest carbon stocks. Of particular importance to national GHG inventories is how trade-offs between forest carbon stocks and bioenergy production are accounted for within the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector under current and future international climate change mitigation agreements. Through a case study of electricity produced using wood pellets from harvested forest stands in Ontario, Canada, this study assesses the implications of forest carbon accounting approaches on net emissions attributable to pellets produced for domestic use or export. Particular emphasis is placed on the forest management reference level (FMRL) method, as it will be employed by most Annex I nations in the next Kyoto Protocol Commitment Period. While bioenergy production is found to reduce forest carbon sequestration, under the FMRL approach this trade-off may not be accounted for and thus not incur an accountable AFOLU-related emission, provided that total forest harvest remains at or below that defined under the FMRL baseline. In contrast, accounting for forest carbon trade-offs associated with harvest for bioenergy results in an increase in net GHG emissions (AFOLU and life cycle emissions) lasting 37 or 90 years (if displacing coal or natural gas combined cycle generation, respectively). AFOLU emissions calculated using the Gross-Net approach are dominated by legacy effects of past management and natural disturbance, indicating near-term net forest carbon increase but longer-term reduction in forest carbon stocks. Export of wood pellets to EU markets does not greatly affect the total life cycle GHG emissions of wood pellets. However, pellet exporting countries risk creating a considerable GHG emissions burden, as they are responsible for AFOLU and bioenergy production emissions but do not receive credit for pellets displacing fossil fuel-related GHG emissions. Countries producing bioenergy from forest biomass, whether for domestic use or for export, should carefully consider potential implications of alternate forest carbon accounting methods to ensure that potential bioenergy pathways can contribute to GHG emissions reduction targets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The resource issues around restoring human dominated landscapes in tropical South Asia are complex and can be divided into topics concerning forest fragmentation and restoration. Issues that focus on effects of forest fragmentation include studies that show declines in forest structure and standing carbon stocks within forest fragments as compared to contiguous forest; changes in bird composition and flock density in relation to land use - especially between forests, the forest buffer zones and agricultural lands (tea, coffee); and the potential origins of many sacred groves as forest fragments and their future roles as cultural, social and ecological centers of reforestation within deforested landscapes. Studies that focus on restoration have demonstrated the benefits of plantations as mechanisms to establish second growth forests and native species plantings for both economic and conservation purposes; the incorporation of indigenous plants that produce non-timber forest products in forest restoration programs; and the control of fire, soil preparation and protection from herbivory as treatments that can facilitate natural forest regeneration in montane grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tension between the large global demand for tropical timber, and ecological sustainability and local socioeconomic development in the fragile natural ecosystems of the Amazon region has challenged many generations. In this case study, carried out in an ecotone forest in the northern Brazilian Amazon, we seek to demonstrate how forest management can became more sustainable through silvicultural prescriptions that reduce forest degradation and soil erosion. We evaluated the effects of the sustainable forest management (SFM) on tree diversity, timber volumes, and carbon stocks. A continuous forest inventory was carried out in nine 1-ha permanent plots (900 subplots of 100 m²), distributed in three treatments with three repetitions: T1 = control without selective logging, T2 = SFM, and T3 = SFM + silvicultural treatment of thinning release by tree girdling and poisoning. SFM was carried out with an average of three commercial timber trees harvested per hectare with DBH (diameter at breast height) ≥ 50 cm, corresponding to a timber volume of 20 ± 6 m3 ha-1, equivalent to the removal of 7 ± 2 Mg C ha-1 (5% of the original C). The formation of clearings (gaps) arising from the falling of exploited trees (0.12 ± 0.09 ha) resulted in greater impacts on the forest structure than the construction of 4 m skidder trails (0.06 ± 0.04 ha), with an average of 7 ± 4 damaged trees ha-1 and 5 ± 3 dead trees ha-1. Although six trees species became locally extinct, tree diversity was little altered, and timber volumes and forest carbon volume stocks remained essentially constant at this average logging intensity. Based on our results, sustainable forest management can become an efficient model for land use in the Amazon when harvesting is carried out using this average logging intensity. However, long-term monitoring studies using permanent plots in ecotone forests in the Brazilian Amazon will still be necessary. Quantifying, evaluating, and reporting impacts related to forest management will enable the formation of an empirical basis to support sustanaible forestry practices and for updating environmental legislation, contributing to local socioeconomic development, and maintaining the environmental services provided globally by tropical forests. • We evaluated the effects of selective logging and silvicultural treatments. • The mean intensity of logging (20 ± 6 m3 ha-1) did not alter tree diversity. • The greatest impact came from clearings created by falling commercial timber trees. • Forest carbon stock may alter depending on the selective logging intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Landscapes in New Zealand could change due to incentives for carbon sequestration. [•] Economic potential for conversion of pasture to forest is high in eligible areas. [•] Carbon prices, biophysical conditions, and farmers’ expectations affect conversion. [•] Incentives for non-carbon services make conversion more attractive in many areas. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] The Selva Central has higher tree species richness than many forests. [•] Deforestation reduced closed forest from three-quarters of the area to two-thirds. [•] Monte Carlo analyses showed significant net emissions of 1.6±0.4millionMg carbon. [•] A national park and two protected areas have prevented deforestation and degradation. [•] Effective conservation could avoid emissions of 2.8±0.8millionMg carbon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] We re-measured old forest plots to assess carbon dynamics over >10-year period. [•] Late-successional (LS) live carbon stocks are high relative to regional mean. [•] Old-growth (OG) live carbon stocks are high relative to regional mean. [•] LS plots accumulated carbon at a positive rate and OG carbon declined. [•] Forest Vegetation Simulator is not a reliable predictor of carbon in old forests. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Highlights: [•] Third-party certification schemes are seeking to fill a social justice gap. [•] Without procedural justice, forest carbon projects may not succeed. [•] Most projects do not document compliance with procedural justice requirements. [•] Certification may not be a credible indicator of community involvement in projects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: High spatial resolution three-dimensional (3D) measurements of vegetation by remote sensing are advancing ecological research and environmental management. However, substantial economic and logistical costs limit this application, especially for observing phenological dynamics in ecosystem structure and spectral traits. Here we demonstrate a new aerial remote sensing system enabling routine and inexpensive aerial 3D measurements of canopy structure and spectral attributes, with properties similar to those of LIDAR, but with RGB (red-green-blue) spectral attributes for each point, enabling high frequency observations within a single growing season. This “Ecosynth” methodology applies photogrammetric “Structure from Motion” computer vision algorithms to large sets of highly overlapping low altitude (<130m) aerial photographs acquired using off-the-shelf digital cameras mounted on an inexpensive (

Abstract: Past research on identifying potentially negative impacts of forest management activities has primarily focused on traditional forest operations. The increased use of forest biomass for energy in recent years, spurred predominantly by policy incentives for the reduction of fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions, and by efforts from the forestry sector to diversify products and increase value from the forests, has again brought much attention to this issue. The implications of such practices continue to be controversially debated; predominantly the adverse impacts on soil productivity and biodiversity, and the climate change mitigation potential of forest bioenergy. Current decision making processes require comprehensive, differentiated assessments of the known and unknown factors and risk levels of potentially adverse environmental effects. This paper provides such an analysis and differentiates between the feedstock of harvesting residues, roundwood, and salvage wood. It concludes that the risks related to biomass for energy outtake are feedstock specific and vary in terms of scientific certainty. Short-term soil productivity risks are higher for residue removal. There is however little field evidence of negative long-term impacts of biomass removal on productivity in the scale predicted by modeling. Risks regarding an alteration of biodiversity are relatively equally distributed across the feedstocks. The risk of limited or absent short-term carbon benefits is highest for roundwood, but negligible for residues and salvage wood. Salvage operation impacts on soil productivity and biodiversity are a key knowledge gap. Future research should also focus on deriving regionally specific, quantitative thresholds for sustainable biomass removal. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bottomland forests are often productive ecosystems with large quantities of above- and belowground carbon, yet few long-term research projects relating to harvest effects in bottomland hardwood forests exist. This project evaluated the long-term (24-years after harvest) effects of three disturbance treatments on the carbon budget of a tupelo-baldcypress swamp in southwestern Alabama. The site was clearcut in 1986 and timber removed by helicopter. Disturbance treatments were: 1. helicopter (HELI), 2. skidder transportation simulation (SKID), and 3. glyphosate herbicide removal of vegetation following harvesting during years one and two (GLYPH). An adjacent portion of the original stand provides a non-harvested reference (REF) condition. Measurements included aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, soil carbon, soil CO2 efflux and estimates of buried coarse woody debris on the site. SKID treatments had the highest aboveground biomass (73.9 Mg ha−1) and total carbon storage (206.1 Mg ha−1) of the three treatments. GLYPH treatments had the lowest carbon storage (144.2 Mg ha−1) and lower aboveground woody biomass (26.4 Mg ha−1). HELI and SKID treatments were similar, but have slightly less in total forest carbon (168.7 Mg ha−1) than the REF condition. Belowground coarse woody debris storage increased carbon storage on these sites with an additional 8–13 Mg ha−1 being stored. GLYPH treatments had the highest total soil CO2 efflux followed by HELI and SKID treatments, respectively. Higher biomass and carbon storage of SKID treatments is explained by the flood tolerance of tupelo, diverse microtopography created by skidder traffic, and decreased soil aeration of skidder-rutted areas immediately after harvest which favored tupelo coppice. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Modification and loss of forests due to natural and anthropogenic disturbance contribute an estimated 20% of annual greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. Although forest carbon pool modeling rarely suggests a ‘carbon neutral’ flux profile, the life cycle assessment community and associated product carbon footprint protocols have struggled to account for the GHG emissions associated with forestry, specifically, and land use generally. Principally, this is due to underdeveloped linkages between life cycle inventory (LCI) modeling for wood and forest carbon modeling for a full range of forest types and harvest practices, as well as a lack of transparency in globalized forest supply chains. In this paper, through a comparative study of U.S. and Chinese coated freesheet paper, we develop the initial foundations for a methodology that rescales IPCC methods from the national to the product level, with reference to the approaches in three international product carbon footprint protocols. Due to differences in geographic origin of the wood fiber, the results for two scenarios are highly divergent. This suggests that both wood LCI models and the protocols need further development to capture the range of spatial and temporal dimensions for supply chains (and the associated land use change and modification) for specific product systems. The paper concludes by outlining opportunities to measure and reduce uncertainty in accounting for net emissions of biogenic carbon from forestland, where timber is harvested for consumer products. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Outbreak of the emerging infectious disease sudden oak death continues to threaten California and Oregon forests following introduction of the exotic plant pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. Identifying areas at risk and forecasting changes in forest carbon following disease outbreak requires an understanding of the geographical distribution of host populations, which is unknown. In this study, we quantify and map the population density and carbon contents of five key host species for P. ramorum in California and Oregon, including four hosts killed by the pathogen (Notholithocarpus densiflorus, Quercus agrifolia, Quercus kelloggii and Quercus chrysolepis) and the foliar host Umbellularia californica which supports high sporulation rates. We integrate multiple sources of vegetation data, assembled from sparsely distributed (regional-scale) forest inventory and analysis (FIA) plots and more densely distributed (landscape-scale) plots for monitoring sudden oak death, and develop spatial prediction models based on correlation with environmental variables and spatial dependencies in host abundance. We estimate that 1.8 billion N. densiflorus trees (68Tg C) and 2.6 billion Quercus host trees (227Tg C) occur across 3.9 and 17.7 million ha of their respective habitat. A total of 436 million U. californica trees (14Tg C) occur across 4.2 million ha which frequently overlap with Quercus and N. densiflorus host populations. Combination of landscape-scale data with FIA data resulted in more accurate estimation of host populations and their carbon contents. Forests of northern California and southwest Oregon have the highest concentration of the most susceptible hosts along with climatic conditions that favor pathogen spread. This study represents the first spatially-explicit estimate of P. ramorum host populations and their carbon contents which exceed previously published estimates. Our results will inform landscape- to regional-scale models of disease dynamics and guide management decisions regarding ecosystem impacts including risk of C release following widespread tree mortality. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A team of ecologists, computer scientists, and engineers from Conservation International (CI) and San Diego Supercomputer Center at the University of California San Diego (SDSC, UCSD) has been collaborating over the past 3 years to develop cyberinfrastructure for the TEAM (Tropical Ecology, Assessment and Monitoring) Network of tropical forest field sites. The TEAM project provides real-time data to understand how tropical forest ecosystems are being impacted by global climate change and land cover change and to improve conservation decisions. A major objective of this project is to provide information and services on tropical forest data disseminated by TEAM sites within countries participating in the TEAM network. The cyberinfrastructure provides a pervasive computational ecosystem, integrating grid computing infrastructure with high-performance backend resources, data warehouses, sophisticated client applications, new instruments, and embedded sensors, thus enabling a new paradigm for monitoring, understanding, and managing ecological and environmental systems. This paper presents the TEAM data management, access, and analysis system that provides end-to-end solutions for sensor-based data and field observations collected at TEAM sites. Specifically, two major applications are presented, viz., the “Data Query and Download Application (DQA)” application, which allows users to navigate and download diverse TEAM datasets such as Tree and Liana Biodiversity, Terrestrial Vertebrate, Climate and Forest Carbon data using a Google Maps based interface; and, the “Forest Carbon Calculator (FCC)” application, which calculates tree biomass using equations for forests with different precipitation regimes, thereby predicting relationships between tree biomass, tree diameter and wood density to estimate the amount of above ground carbon in the forests. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The ‘Bali Road Map’ of UNFCCC COP-13 calls for sharing lessons learned from demonstration activities that aim to reduce emissions from deforestation and degradation and enhance forest carbon stocks (now known as ‘REDD+’). To develop a feasible yet rigorous strategy for learning from these REDD+ pilots, it is critical to assess previous efforts to evaluate the impacts of ‘pre-REDD+’ avoided deforestation projects. Further, because REDD+ remains a politically volatile issue, with both critics and supporters pointing to the impacts (or lack thereof) of these pre-REDD+ projects, it is important to critically examine the methods employed to assess those impacts. We review the body of literature that makes claims about the socioeconomic and biophysical impacts of pre-REDD+ projects. We find assessments of outcomes or impacts for only five pre-REDD projects. The design, data collection, and analysis methods for understanding the impacts of pre-REDD+ projects frequently lack rigor. In particular, the counterfactual scenarios for establishing socioeconomic impacts are vague, unscientific, or omitted completely. We conclude that drawing specific lessons from pre-REDD+ projects for the design or evaluation of current REDD+ projects is tenuous. Rigorous project evaluations are challenging, expensive, and time-consuming, but because they are so critical for learning about what works for people and forests, evaluations of current REDD+ projects must use improved methods. In particular, much better care should be taken to construct credible – and where possible, consistent – counterfactuals for both biophysical and socioeconomic outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Weighted estimation methods for analysis of mapped plot forest inventory data are discussed. The appropriate weighting scheme can vary depending on the type of analysis and graphical display. Both statistical issues and user expectations need to be considered in these methods. A weighting scheme is proposed that balances statistical considerations and the logical expectations of users. The methods described here are being used in an online forest carbon estimation tool. Example applications are presented to demonstrate the methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Greenhouse gas inventories and emissions reduction programs require robust methods to quantify carbon sequestration in forests. We compare forest carbon estimates from Light Detection and Ranging (Lidar) data and QuickBird high-resolution satellite images, calibrated and validated by field measurements of individual trees. We conducted the tests at two sites in California: (1) 59km2 of secondary and old-growth coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forest (Garcia–Mailliard area) and (2) 58km2 of old-growth Sierra Nevada forest (North Yuba area). Regression of aboveground live tree carbon density, calculated from field measurements, against Lidar height metrics and against QuickBird-derived tree crown diameter generated equations of carbon density as a function of the remote sensing parameters. Employing Monte Carlo methods, we quantified uncertainties of forest carbon estimates from uncertainties in field measurements, remote sensing accuracy, biomass regression equations, and spatial autocorrelation. Validation of QuickBird crown diameters against field measurements of the same trees showed significant correlation (r =0.82, P <0.05). Comparison of stand-level Lidar height metrics with field-derived Lorey''s mean height showed significant correlation (Garcia–Mailliard r =0.94, P <0.0001; North Yuba R =0.89, P <0.0001). Field measurements of five aboveground carbon pools (live trees, dead trees, shrubs, coarse woody debris, and litter) yielded aboveground carbon densities (mean±standard error without Monte Carlo) as high as 320±35Mgha−1 (old-growth coast redwood) and 510±120Mgha−1 (red fir [Abies magnifica] forest), as great or greater than tropical rainforest. Lidar and QuickBird detected aboveground carbon in live trees, 70–97% of the total. Large sample sizes in the Monte Carlo analyses of remote sensing data generated low estimates of uncertainty. Lidar showed lower uncertainty and higher accuracy than QuickBird, due to high correlation of biomass to height and undercounting of trees by the crown detection algorithm. Lidar achieved uncertainties of <1%, providing estimates of aboveground live tree carbon density (mean±95% confidence interval with Monte Carlo) of 82±0.7Mgha−1 in Garcia–Mailliard and 140±0.9Mgha−1 in North Yuba. The method that we tested, combining field measurements, Lidar, and Monte Carlo, can produce robust wall-to-wall spatial data on forest carbon. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Despite remaining uncertainties, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation in developing countries (REDD) projects are being planned and implemented across the tropics, primarily targeting countries with high forest cover and high deforestation rates. However, there is growing recognition that REDD planning requires a broadened approach; a future REDD mechanism should incentivise emissions reduction in all developing forested countries, and should address critical non-carbon dimensions of REDD implementation—quality of forest governance, conservation priorities, local rights and tenure frameworks, and sub-national project potential. When considering this broader suite of factors, different REDD priorities can emerge, including in countries with low forest cover that would be overlooked by conventional site selection criteria. Using the Philippines as a case study, the paper highlights the importance of an enabling environment to REDD implementation, and presents a more comprehensive and inclusive approach for thinking about what comprises a “REDD country.” [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Through carbon offset programs, forest owners can be offered financial incentives to enhance the uptake and storage of carbon on their lands. The amount of carbon that can be claimed by an individual landowner will ultimately depend on multiple factors, including the productivity of the forest, the management history of the stand, and the program in which the landowner is participating. This project presents a modeling framework for forest carbon accounting which is driven by forest yield curves and carbon pool partitioning. Within this model the amount of creditable carbon generated from adjusting the rotation age of multiple forest stands can be estimated for 46 distinct North American forest types. The model also provides a comparison of total creditable carbon generated under three carbon accounting methodologies: the Department of Energy 1605b Registry, the Chicago Climate Exchange, and the Voluntary Carbon Standard. In our evaluation of a 5-year rotation extension across 102 unique modeling scenarios, we find large differences among the carbon accounting schemes. This has implications for both forest landowners and policymakers alike. In particular, methodologies to account for such issues as leakage, permanence, additionality, and baseline establishment, while potentially increasing the overall legitimacy of any forest carbon offset program, can reduce creditable carbon to the forest owner (by up to 70%). Regardless of the protocol used, we also note strong regional differences, with Pacific Northwest forests of fir, spruce, hemlock, alder and maple being the most effective at sequestering carbon on a per area basis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: A simulation of regional and national forest carbon balance in Canada requires, due to regional correlations, a joint simulation of areas burned (BA) in regional fires. Regional correlations of BA are largely determined by concurrent years of relatively large (LF) and small fires (SF). A binary Markov Chain Monte Carlo procedure (MCMC) is constructed for forecasting regional LF(SF) status on an annual basis. For each forecast year the regional BA-value is obtained by a random draw from region-specific empirical quantile functions for LF and SF years. In the MCMC the conditional likelihood of a regional allocation of nLF* LF-years is maximized; whereby nLF* is drawn from a distribution fitted to LF(SF) classified data of area burned in 29 Canadian forest fire regions between 1959 and 1999. Regional allocation is governed by region-specific autologistic functions. MCMC results confirmed regional and national means and variances while regional correlations were generally somewhat lower than in the data. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Industrial forest could be managed to enhance carbon (C) sequestration together with other ecological and socio-economic objectives. However, this requires quantifying C dynamics of all major forest types within the management area, over the whole forest rotation. We used data from permanent sample plots and temporary forest development survey plots to generate volume yield curves and used the Carbon Budget Model of the Canadian Forest Sector (CBM-CFS3) to estimate C yield and dynamics over a rotation for major forest types in northern New Brunswick, Canada. We compared C yields of natural versus managed and hardwood versus softwood forest under different silviculture treatments over the entire rotation. Carbon in 40–80-year-old and > 80-year-old tolerant hardwood stands averaged about 115 and 130–142tha−1, respectively, while softwood spruce (Picea sp.)–balsam fir (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.) 40–80 and > 80 years old averaged 90 and 88–94tCha−1. Among 10 stand types, total C ranged from 50 to 109tha−1 at age 50 years, 92–138tha−1 at age 100, and 79–145tha−1at age 150 years. C in most stand types declined from age 100 to 150 years, except for eastern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis L.), sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britton). At age 100 years, planted softwood stands had 94–135tha−1, versus 92–117tha−1 for natural softwoods and 127–138tha−1 for natural hardwoods. Planted white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) and natural sugar maple and yellow birch sequestered the most C. The total C (above and belowground biomass and deadwood, excluding soil carbon) on the 428,000ha test landbase was 35 million tonnes, or an average of 82tha−1. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Given the decision to include small-scale sinks projects implemented by low-income communities in the clean development mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol, the paper explores some of the basic governance conditions that such carbon forestry projects will have to meet if they are to be successfully put in practice. To date there are no validated small-scale sinks projects and investors have shown little interest in financing such projects, possibly to due to the risks and uncertainties associated with sinks projects. Some suggest however, that carbon has the potential to become a serious commodity on the world market, thus governance over ownership, rights and responsibilities merit discussion. Drawing on the interdisciplinary development, as well as from the literature on livelihoods and democratic decentralization in forestry, the paper explores how to adapt forest carbon projects to the realities encountered in the local context. It also highlights the importance of capitalizing on synergies with other rural development strategies, ensuring stakeholder participation by working with accountable, representative local organizations, and creating flexible and adaptive project designs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The productivity of fast-growing tropical plantations depends, in part, on the ability of trees to obtain and utilize site resources, and the allocation of fixed carbon (C) to wood production. Simulation models can represent these processes and interactions, but the value of these models depends on their ability to improve predictions of stand growth relative to simpler empirical approaches. We evaluated the 3-PG process-based model for simulating the response of Eucalyptus grandis×urophylla to changes in soil fertility and climate. This was done by calibrating the model with a complete C budget from an irrigated plantation, and then validating the model using independent data based on 2 years of growth from 40 pairs of fertilized and unfertilized stands. The 3-PG predictions were tested against actual production, and against a classic, empirical approach to estimating stand yield. The 3-PG parameter for site fertility was based on an objective fertilization response from the paired-plots. The 3-PG model responded well to the range of soil and climatic conditions during calibration, and was particularly sensitive to estimates of leaf area index. Actual wood production for the 40 validation stands ranged from 2 to 51 Mg ha−1 per year, compared with model estimates of 10–42 Mg ha−1 per year (r2=0.78). Both 3-PG and the empirical model provided good estimates of wood production for average conditions, but 3-PG successfully represented the wet years and dry years that were not differentiated in the empirical model. This sensitivity of 3-PG to climate may be very useful for the prediction of wood production during short rotations, where a few years of unusual weather may strongly influence yield. Process-based models can play an important role in improving the management of these almost-agricultural forests, especially in regions with high rainfall variability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]