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This study is geared towards evaluating the physico-thermal and mechanical properties of fibreglass-ceramic-adansonia digitata’s fibres reinforced epoxy composite with relatively fire-resistant behaviour to validate its effectiveness in most applications. The composite was developed with the aid of a seamless manual hand lay-up technique. The Adansonia digitata fibre and the constituent matrix ratio were thoroughly mixed to obtain a homogenous paste which was then allowed to cure using the compressive moulding machine for 7 min. Different volumetric compositions were obtained using the Taguchi L9 (3)3 orthogonal array method for the experimental design. Physico-mechanical analyses were carried out on the developed composite. The Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) were done to determine the thermal stability and morphological characteristics of the composite respectively. It was evident from the experiment that the developed composites possessed better mechanical and thermal properties with good performance than the control sample, which can serve as a superior alternative for conventional fibres as both for fire resistance and other engineering applications.

Adansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae), also known as Baobab, is well known in Africa for its significant role in international trade and as important source of food, folk medicine and income to rural communities in Africa. The fruit pulp have been used in Sudan and many other countries as beverages and in traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria, fever and many gastrointestinal diseases. The objective of the study was to determine the best method for extraction of phenolic rich crude extracts from A. digitata fruit pulp with high anti-oxidant (phosphomolybdenum, antiradical, reducing power and ferrous chelating) activity and enzyme inhibition activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), tyrosinase, α-glucosidase, and α-amylase. Water, ethanol and 50% ethanol extracts were prepared using maceration, decoction and microwave techniques. Fruit pulp of A. digitata showed significant (p

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L., Malvaceae) seed oil contains Fatty Acids (FAs) with commercial and cosmeceutical value. The influence of provenance and geographical region on FAs profile and content of seed oil from baobab wild populations in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) was assessed in this study. The FA profiles were determined as fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) by Gas Chromatography (GC). Generally, the seed oil contained 17–22% saturated fatty acids (SFA), 32–38% monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and 22–26% polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Palmitic acid (C16:0) was the most abundant SFA, while oleic (C18:1) and linoleic acid (C18:2, LA) were the dominant MUFA and PUFA, respectively. There existed significant (p

Baobab is a very important plant with several uses, serving as food security crop and has the potential to raise income of farmers. However, the plant is undomesticated. We have the objective of domesticating the plant and promote its cultivation and utilization. Seeds were treated with sulphuric acid for early germination and grafted with matured scions suspected to be fruiting for several years. Twenty-two of the seedlings were transplanted on the field at Ho Technical University campus. Unfortunately, only four survived bushfire and destruction by stray animals. Surprisingly, one of the four surviving trees anthesis within twenty-eight months after seed treatment (twenty months after transplanting). This is the earliest ever reported anthesis of baobab. With better agronomic practices such as supplementary irrigation, insect pest control, manuring and protection from stray animals, baobab could start fruiting within two years of planting. This would alleviate fear of long maturity period and motivate farmers to go into baobab plantation. This would help diversify agriculture in many African countries, increase income and food security and contribute towards the attainment of the sustainable development goals of the United Nations.

Although the importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is increasingly recognised across the globe, their potential is not yet fully realised. Their often valuable nutritional composition and discovery of new possible applications offer further opportunities for innovation and rural development. Yet only few NTFPs manage the jump from traditional, informal use to global markets. Therefore, this paper assesses how baobab (Adansonia digitata L) fruit products overcame the challenges faced by most NTFPs in gaining access to such markets, discussing factors contributing to its emergence and how sustainability aspects were addressed. Complex interactions of a variety of actors and institutions in the global South and the global North, encompassing both the production as well as the consumption side, were necessary for these developments. Triggered by the rising demand for natural, healthy foods and growing knowledge and appreciation for indigenous products, increasing numbers of entrepreneurs and development organisations entered the scene. Poor climates for innovation and enterprise development in the producer countries were overcome by developing the sector bottom-up using external support inducing a variety of innovations including supply chain modifications in order to comply with the high quality standards demanded. With baobab previously unknown to Western consumers new markets were formed due to the combined efforts by a variety of both private and public stakeholders and demand for baobab fruit powder rose to several hundred tons per year after the acceptance as novel food in European and US markets. Numerous products are now available predominantly in niche, early adopter markets focusing on healthy or organic foods. However, further support of the sector is necessary to ensure sustainable commercialisation of baobab resources. With the developmental impact being higher the more ethically, sustainably sourced baobab is sold, activities focusing on increasing demand and raising awareness on the consumer side may well have a higher impact than direct efforts aimed towards the production systems.

The baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) tree has multiple uses and is highly valued in Southern Africa, particularly in the rural communities where people depend on this resource for their livelihoods. However, few studies have been conducted on the usefulness of this high value plant species in Namibia. The aim of this study was to document the biology and local uses of baobab populations in Outapi and Onesi sites in Omusati Region, Namibia. A comparison of densities, distribution patterns, structure, phenology, stem conditions and uses of baobabs between the two sites was done. Road transects were used to identify focal trees which in turn were used to determine the placement of circular plots. In each plot, diameter at breast height (dbh) of adult and sub-adult trees, height of adults, sub-adults and saplings and their stem conditions, number of fruits on each fruiting baobab tree, occurrence data and the land-use types where baobabs occurred were recorded. The results revealed significant differences in the dbh-size and height classes between the two study sites. The bell-shaped distribution curve in dbh size-classes in the two sites suggests poor recruitment. The results revealed that Onesi villagers made more use of the baobab tree than Outapi urban residents. Some of the common uses of baobabs in both study sites included the use of baobab fruit for human consumption and the use of the baobab bark and leaves as livestock fodder. Additionally, the people of Outapi and Onesi use the baobab fruit and bark to treat certain ailments such as cold, flu and diarrhea.

The mirage of bioactive compounds in essential oil (EO) has raised its prospects as an alternative to synthetic chemicals preservatives. The yields of the hydro-distilled EO from the leaf and stem-bark of Adansonia digitata were: 0.302% and 0.403%; while identified compounds were: 23 and 40 respectively. The principal chemical constituents of the EO were: hydrocarbons, alkene alcohol, cyclic ketonic ether, terpenoids, amides, esters. Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol (26.31%), 8-dimethyl-2-(1-methylethenyl) (8.20%), Tetracosan (6.54%), Heptacosane (5.81%) and Tetratetracontane (5.59%) were dominant compounds in the leaves EO. While, the major compounds of the stem-bark EO were: Octadecane (9.30%), Cyclopentane (8.81%), 1-Octadecanesulphonyl chloride (8.73%), Heptadecane (8.50%), Eicosane (8.34%), and Tetracosan (7.12%). The antimicrobial activity of the EO against post-harvest decay of tomato fruits stored at room temperature (27±2 °C) indicated significant (P

Baobab seed oil, obtained from the seed kernel of Adansonia digitata from Southern Africa, has experienced an increase in global demand. 1H and 13C NMR was used for the authentication of the baobab oils, allowing for the quantification of the characteristic cyclopropane and cyclopropene fatty acids. Through similarity analysis, differential NMR spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis substantial differences were observed in commercial samples, segregating the oil samples into two groups. The cyclopropane and cyclopropene fatty acids, were absent in one group of the samples, raising the possibility of falsification. Similarity analysis and multivariate data analysis, in which the spectral data were compared with those of fourteen other vegetable oils, indicated a high correlation between the potentially falsified baobab seed oils and soybean oil. A comparison of the phytosterol markers of the oils by differential NMR confirmed the adulteration with soybean oil.

Polysaccharides extracted from fruits and leaves of baobab tree (Adansonia digitata) were assessed for their emulsifying capacity. Emulsions were formed at acidic pH (pH 2.0 and ϕ = 0.1) and were investigated by means of droplet size distribution analysis, ζ-potential measurements, and interfacial composition analysis. Despite the macromolecular differences of baobab polysaccharides all emulsions were formulated at concentrations resulting in comparable zero shear viscosity of the continuous phase allowing structure vs. function relationships to be made. Emulsions made with fruit polysaccharides formed finer droplets and exhibited good long term stability than those formulated with leaf polysaccharides. Stability was achieved by formation of thick interfacial layers, as evidenced by the large polysaccharide interfacial loading (Γpolysaccharide 13.8 or 20.7 mg m−2) that created an effective steric barrier against droplet growth, whereas proteins did not seem to play central role. Fruit polysaccharide emulsification performance at acidic pH was attributed to their compact conformation at the interface that is linked to their structure. Conversely, the presence of rhamnogalacturonan segments in leaf polysaccharides resulted in chain desorption and poor emulsion stability. Overall, it has been shown that baobab fruit polysaccharides could be suitable emulsifiers for a range of technological applications that require low pH stability.

Baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit had received growing attention for its myriad nutritional and medicinal benefits, including those from its polyphenol-rich profile and powerful antioxidant activity. The current study evaluated the bioaccessibility of phenolic constituents and antioxidant capacity of baobab fruit pulp (BFP) and its byproduct, the baobab fruit shell (BFS), upon in vitro digestion. In general, the in vitro digestion reduced phenolic contents and antioxidant capacity; however, several flavonoids, particularly quercetin, proanthocyanidin, proanthocyanidins B1 and B2 were highly bioaccessible. Specifically, a significant increase in the bioaccessibility of proanthocyanidins (173%) in BFS was observed following gastric digestion, possibly due to hydrolysis of proanthocyanidin isomers. Moreover, a significantly higher bioaccessibility of proanthocyanidin B2 (170%) and quercetin (304%) in BFP, and proanthocyanidin (363%) in BFS was also observed following intestinal digestion probably due to pancreatin effect on the complex food matrix or the depolymerisation of insoluble proanthocyanidin and quercetin conjugates induced by the increase in pH. A considerable α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition in all samples (>50% inhibition) were observed following the in vitro digestion. Hence, both BFP and BFS are good sources of bioaccessible polyphenolics that could be utilised as ingredients in functional foods.

The long observed disparity in fruit production among individual trees of the iconic African baobab, Adansonia digitata L. presents a potential challenge for the supply of fruit and seeds for food, medicinal and cosmetic purposes. Moreover, this disparity presents an unsolved mystery with ecological as well as economic implications. African baobabs are hermaphrodites where flowers have both male and female reproductive organs within the same flower. Here we evaluate the reproductive features, pollen-pistil interactions, and pollinator-attractant traits from South African baobabs to investigate whether trees with different fruit production levels have different floral features. We show that morphological traits highlight functional sex differences that match with average fruit production data of our sampled trees. Trees that produce more fruit comprised more functionally female flowers, whereas more functionally male flowers were characteristic of trees that did not produce many fruits. This difference may signify a shift in sex allocation in African baobabs, which suggests that baobabs might be functionally, or cryptically, dioecious. Collectively our data suggest that maintaining both tree types within a landscape is paramount for long-term sustainable harvesting of baobab fruit and seeds.

The aim of this study was to document local traditional uses on Adansonia digitata (baobab) among the Herero, Ovambo, San and Masubiya ethnic groups in northern Namibia. Data was collected by oral interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 64 respondents were interviewed. Indigenous knowledge on baobab is transferred from older generations to younger generations through word of mouth. The information that was captured includes local traditional use and benefits of baobab, use value, and perceptions on baobab population dynamics. Findings from the current study revealed that baobab uses go beyond provision of food, medicine and spiritual needs in Namibia. It is also used as feed for chicken. The bark was also recorded to be useful as fodder during drought. The fruit is the most used part of the baobab, but the use value of bark was generally high among all ethnic groups. The study revealed that the Ovambo people use more baobab products than the Herero, San and Masubiya communities. Destructive uses of seeds were identified as a factor contributing to the lack of regeneration of baobab. It is recommended that destructive uses of baobab, especially use of seeds, need to be regulated to sustainable levels for conservation of baobab in Namibia. Furthermore, the benefits from the baobab tree need to be promoted in order to fully utilize its potential in improving livelihoods of rural communities in Namibia.

Bioactive compounds of baobab (Adansonia digitata) pulp from Malawi were investigated. The effect of thermal treatment and storage on selected quality attributes of the juice was also evaluated. Organic compounds were analysed by HPLC; total phenol content (TPC) and total antioxidant activity (FRAP, ABTS and DPPH) were measured by spectrophotometry. Malawi baobab pulp contains high levels of procyanidin B2 (533 ± 22.6 mg/100 g FW), vitamin C (AA + DHA) (466 ± 2.5 mg/100 g FW), gallic acid (68.5 ± 12.4 mg/100 g FW) and (−)-epicatechin (43.0 ± 3.0 mg/100 g FW) and showed a maximum TPC of 1.89 × 103 ± 1.61 mg GAE/100 g FW. The maximum antioxidant activity was 2.81 × 103 ± 92.8 mg TEAC/100 g FW for FRAP, 1.52 × 103 ± 17.1 mg TEAC/100 g FW for ABTS and 50.9 ± 0.43% DPPH for DPPH. Thermal pasteurisation (72 °C, 15 s) retained vitamin C which further showed extended half-life under refrigeration temperature (6 °C). Procyanidin B2, (−)-epicatechin, TPC and antioxidant activity fluctuated during storage. Antioxidant activity was significantly correlated (p ≤ 0.05) with bioactive compounds and TPC.

The African baobab's ( Adansonia digitata ) breeding system has not been experimentally verified, and it remains unclear why such a stark disparity exists between ‘male’ trees that produce few, if any, fruit, and ‘female’ trees that produce many fruit consistently year after year. Combined results from gene flow analyses of 26 trees scored for nine microsatellite loci and hand-pollination experiments on five trees across three baobab populations in Mutale District, Limpopo Province, South Africa, investigated the breeding system, strength of incompatibility within trees, and if genetic differentiation was detectable between ‘males’ and ‘females.’ Our data suggest that A. digitata is largely self-incompatible. ‘Male’ and ‘female’ trees showed high heterozygosity and estimated outcrossing rates did not differ in degree of self-incompatibility, and showed no significant genetic differentiation. The ability of ‘males’ to produce fruit if cross-pollinated suggests that poor fruit production in male trees is most likely due to low rates of pollination.

Plants in arid lands with long histories of use by humans may shed light on the past and help decide on management policies, especially with regards agroforestry design and landscape-scale ecological restoration. We focus on five woody species that occur in unexpected sites and habitats in southern Arabia, and the southern Levant (Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon), namely Adansonia digitata L., Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC., Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev., Lawsonia inermis L., and Tamarindus indica L.. Little study has been conducted on these taxa in these areas, despite their past and present importance to people in the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and elsewhere. Based on herbarium records from 12 major herbaria, field observations, and extensive literature review, we suggest that two of the five taxa are clearly archaeophytes in the Middle East (Adansonia digitata and Lawsonia inermis) introduced as early as 1500–2500 years BP. In contrast, D. sissoo is probably a neophyte, introduced in the last 135 years. We call for focused research on them as these trees of ancient heritage have value for agricultural, agroforestry and ecological restoration programmes going forward.

African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a common, multifunctional tree native to Western Africa's arid and semi-Arid regions. It offers a broad range of economic benefits, including clothing and medicines, protection (shade), non-wood-forestry products and raw materials for several products. Milk, flavoring agents, spices, protein, oils, and feeds can be sourced from the fruits, the seeds, the leaves, and the flowers. Presently, there are several medicinal benefits of African Baobab. The roots, bark, and leave extracts (methanolic extracts) have high antiviral and antimicrobial activities. The bark contains alkaloid “Adansonin” studied to be active against malaria and fever. The fruit pulp is used as a functional food for natural treatment and prevention of hyperlipidemia associated health anomalies, through enhancing the activity of the antioxidant enzymes. Notwithstanding this wealth of benefits, death of the tree has taken place in some part of the world, hence, imperative means of management and prevention must be enforced. Thus, this review tends to highlight the varied economical, medicinal, nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of African Baobab, and notably, its environmental sustainability.

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a multipurpose tree indigenous to the semi-arid and sub-humid zones of sub-Saharan Africa. Despite it’s multiple uses and valuable properties, information on its nutritional and phenotypic characteristics is rare, particularly in Eastern Africa. For the present study 64 baobab trees were sampled at six different locations of inland and coastal Kenya and the nutritional composition of 59 samples of fruit pulp was determined, including water, minerals, vitamin C and total acidity. The pulp of the studied baobab fruits is a valuable source of minerals and vitamins, particularly of vitamin C (mean 175 ± 62 mg/100 g edible portion on fresh weight basis (EP)), potassium (mean 1006 ± 280 mg/100 g (EP)) and calcium (mean 375 ± 93 mg/100 g EP). However, we found high tree-to-tree differences for all analyzed parameters with highest coefficients of variation detected for iron (47%), zinc (41%) and vitamin C (36%). Additionally we observed nutritional variations regarding iron, potassium, total acidity and pH value among the six locations. The results of this study will contribute to select superior baobab mother trees for future domestication programs and nutrition interventions and to promote the cultivation and use of baobab in Kenya.

Hyperlipidemia is a well-known risk factor related to the development of ischemic heart disease. Soluble dietary fiber possesses lipid-lowering properties. Adansonia digitata (AD) is composed of 56% pectin and 6% soluble fiber based on dry weight. The beneficial effects of AD on lipid profile require further verification. An intervention trial was conducted at Soba Hospital, Sudan, to evaluate the effects of AD on serum lipids among a population of hyperlipidemic patients. The intervention group ( n = 136) received a 20 mg tablet of atorvastatin daily in addition to 30 mg of AD for 28 days while controls ( n = 134) received atorvastatin only. Serum lipid levels were measured using conventional methods before and 1 month following the trial. The two groups were similar in their basic characteristics with no significant differences. There was a notable reduction in the levels of total cholesterol (120.06 vs. 49.06%, P 0.001) and triglycerides (78.13 vs. 57.44%, P 0.001) in the intervention group compared with the control group.

Polysaccharides have been isolated at pH 6.0 or 2.0 from fruits and leaves of two varieties of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.). The isolation protocol was designed to study the influence of pH on the structural and functional characteristics of polysaccharides. The polysaccharides were examined by means of sugar composition analysis, NMR spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and dilute solution viscometry. Polysaccharide yield was substantially higher in fruits (~20% w/w) than in leaves (~4% w/w) with all samples having low protein content ( 300 × 103 g mol−1) than fruits ( 20% w/v, representing a clear divide in their functional properties and potential applications. Overall, baobab fruits and leaves offer a novel source of polysaccharides for the food or pharmaceutical industries.

Encapsulation in alginate beads has always been limited by the leakage due to the too wide distribution of pore sizes. Mixing alginate with other polymers have sometimes reduced the problem. Hydrocolloids from seven tropical vegetal species (barks of Triumfetta cordifolia and Bridelia thermifolia, seeds of Irvingia gabonensis and Beilschmiedia obscura, and leaves of Ceratotheca sesamoides, Adansonia digitata and Corchorus olitorius) were screened for synergistic interactions with alginate in dilute aqueous solution. Mixtures with alginate were made at different volume proportions and deviations from the initial viscosity set at 1 were evaluated. In distilled water, the gums from T. cordifolia, B. obscura, C. sesamoides and C. olitorius presented synergies with alginate. In 2 mM calcium chloride, the seven gums showed positive synergy. Interactions are favored by gum flexibility and the presence of charges, although high charges reduced the interactions. Alginate fraction of maximum viscosity enhancement depends on the ability to conformational order of the gum. The measure by laser diffraction of alginate-gum particles sizes at different fractions showed that the cooperative interactions did not always involve the largest complexes formed in gums associations. The occurrence of these interactions predicts the formation of homogeneous mixed gels at higher polymer and calcium concentrations., Food Science; Food Technology; Physical Chemistry; Alginate; Calcium Chloride; Synergistic interactions; Tropical vegetal gums.

Blends of cereals and nutrient dense plant materials are increasingly being explored as a strategy for food-to-food fortification in areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, where processing is often applied to enhance product attributes, shelf life and safety. However, little is known regarding the potential impact of these strategies on micronutrient retention and bioaccessibility. In this study whole grain pearl millet (WGM) was blended with carrot powder (source of provitamin A) and Adansonia digitata (Baobab) and Moringa oleifera (Moringa) leaf powders (source of iron) to provide formulations with 25% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for Vitamin A. These blends were extruded to produce instant cereal porridges appropriate for consumer markets. Recovery of provitamin A carotenoid ranged from 60.0 to 90.3% after extrusion with higher recoveries in formulations including Moringa and Baobab. Extrusion had a significant negative (p

The efficacy of antagonistic yeast Sporidiobolus pararoseus Y16 alone or in combination with baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) was studied for the expression levels of defense-related genes, oxidative stress and enzymes activity of apple fruits. The results revealed that the treatment of S. pararoseus Y16 at 1 × 108 cells/mL amended with baobab (AB) improved the enzyme activity and then increased the defense mechanism on apple fruit. Moreover, the results of the study showed that the combination of antagonistic yeast and AB led to an enhancement of the efficacy of enzymes of superoxide dismutase, polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, catalase, phenylalanine ammonia lyase, and chitinase activity during the storage period. Furthermore, results showed baobab improved the oxidative tolerance of S. pararoseus Y16, which led to an enhancement of biocontrol activity of antagonist. The proper combination of S. pararoseus Y16 and baobab can thus provide an effective strategy to enhance the postharvest quality of fruits. Besides, gene expression levels of related-enzyme defense responses involved were used to investigate the mechanism of antagonistic yeast in response to the application of baobab in apple. The results exhibited that S. pararoseus Y16 amended with baobab had a significant effect on the induction of defense-related genes expression compared to the control. These findings showed that antagonist yeast treatments amended with baobab could be a promising method for enhancing defense mechanism of apple fruit.

Until recently, only one species of baobab was thought to exist on mainland Africa, namely the tetraploid Adansonia digitata. However, a second, diploid species, Adansonia kilima, has recently been described and its presence has been confirmed in Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia, Namibia and South Africa. In this study, we use morphological analysis to confirm the presence of A. kilima in Zimbabwe. Leaves were collected from four different sites around Zimbabwe and the size and density of the stomata were measured. We found that the trees could be divided into two distinct groups, with the stomatal size and density in each group corresponding with those found previously. This suggests that both species do occur in Zimbabwe and their occurrence is sympatric.

This paper reports on the production of biodiesel from baobab ( Adansonia digitata L.) seed kernel oil, its fuel properties are evaluated which its finding are limited. The transesterification of baobab oil was carried out using sodium methoxide as a homogeneous catalyst. One factor at a time experimental design was used to study the effect of temperature (30–70 °C), time (0.5–2.5 h), catalyst to oil ratio (0.7–3.5 wt.%) and methanol to oil ratio (10–50 wt.%) on the transesterification of baobab oil. Optimum biodiesel production conditions were as follows: reaction temperature (60 °C), reaction time (1 h), catalyst to oil ratio (1.4 wt.%) and methanol to oil ratio (30 wt.%). An optimum biodiesel yield of 96 wt.% was obtained. Important fuel properties such kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, pour point, cloud point, oxidation stability and cetane number were measured and compared to the biodiesel properties in the European and American biodiesel standards (EN and ASTM standard). Results show that important fuel properties of biodiesel from baobab oil met both EN and ASTM standard.

OBJECTIVES: The inclusion of mineral rich African plants such as moringa (Moringa oleifera; MOR) and baobab (Adansonia Digitata; BB) into composite cereal porridges is a potentially sustainable strategy to providing key shortfall micronutrients including iron and zinc to at risk populations. However, only limited information is available on long term health effects of these materials including their potential to modify gut barrier function or their impact on absorption of other nutrients such as provitamin A carotenoids(pVAC). The present study investigated the impact of repeated exposure of MOR and BB to the human intestinal cell model (Caco-2) to assess changes in intestinal cell differentiation and subsequent pVAC uptake from model foods. METHODS: To study gut impacts from BB and MOR exposure at usage rate of 15% of a cereal porridge, Caco-2 cells were cultured and differentiated on 6 well plates for 10–14d with complete media containing digested BB (15%), moringa (15%) or saline (control) in a 1:8–12 ratio (v/v). Caco-2 cell differentiation was followed by (1)H NMR and pVAC transporter by QRT-PCR and Western blotting. Cellular uptake of pVACs in differentiated monolayers was assessed for 4 h from a final acute dose of digested carrots (3590 mg/100 g total proVAC) estimated to deliver ∼30% of the RDA for VA. RESULTS: Alterations in select Caco-2 cell differentiation biomarkers were observed by NMR from repeated exposure to all treatments. Specifically, glycerophosphocholine and taurine were observed to significantly increase with repeated exposure to all treatments. Significant reduction (P

Leafing phenology is an important component of climatic adaptation in semi-arid regions. The questions are to what extent phenology is under genetic control and represent adaptation to local climates? In the present study, we compare leaf phenology among Adansonia digitata L. trees of 27 different origins from West and East Africa and test if the differences follow climatic clines. Timing of bud burst was largely synchronized with the start of rainy season, but some few individual trees showed bud burst before the first rain. Timing of leaf senescence was under genetic control with substantial differences among origins. The timing of senescence was for some origins at the end of rainy season and for some in the beginning of the dry season. Differences among origins in timing of leaf senescence were related to the variation in drought just before- and in the first months of the rainy season at the sites of origin. Populations from drier sites had the earliest leaf shed at the common test site indicating that trees have been adapted to the prevailing climatic conditions at the sites of origin. We discuss the results in the light of possible triggering factors. Keywords: Baobab, Geographic variation, Phenological phases, Senescence, Budburst

In order to fight malnutrition, functional cookies fortified with baobab pulp flour at partial substitution rates of 10, 20 and 30% were evaluated for consumer acceptability and nutritional quality. Consumer acceptability was evaluated in terms of taste, aroma, color and texture (hedonic characteristics) while nutritional quality was evaluated in terms of macro- and micro-nutrient compositions. Results showed that composite flours exhibited good functional properties. Twenty percent fortification cookies produced the most acceptable cookies which were rich in calories (490.24 kcal per 100 g), total fibre (8.65%), and total fat (27.52% DM). According to the National Agency of Sanitary Security recommendations concerning the contribution of each macromolecule to the total energy, crude protein intake was lower, polysaccharide intake was within the recommended value, while total fat intake was largely beyond that value. Mineral profile showed that cookies enriched with 20% of baobab pulp flour were rich in iron (15.6 mg/100 g), calcium (30 mg/100 g), magnesium (20 mg/100 g), potassium (930 mg/100 g), and vitamin C (60 mg/100 g). Thus, incorporation of baobab pulp flour at 20% improved sensory and nutritional qualities of rice cookies. Baobab fortified cookies can therefore be an alternative non costly and accessible snack to alleviate malnutrition in general and micronutrient deficiencies in particular. Keywords: Rice cookies, Baobab pulp flour, Nutritional properties, Sensorial quality

The African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) and castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) are drought resistant green-stemmed succulent plants which grow in the arid and semi-arid regions of Africa. Photosynthesis in the stems of green-stemmed plants is known to contribute to plant carbon gain especially during leafless periods. To study the contribution of stem photosynthesis in stem succulent plants, the height and stem diameter of baobab and castor bean plants grown in the greenhouse were measured. The plants were completely defoliated and subjected to different treatments: Watered with open stems (WO), watered and stems covered with aluminium foil (WC) to achieve 100% light exclusion, drought and open (DO) and drought and covered (DC). Stem coverage with aluminium foil resulted in a higher stem height and diameter during drought for baobab with similar trends seen in castor bean. Light exclusion resulted in a significantly lower bud DW production and enrichment in 13C in bud dry matter of castor bean and in stem dry matter of baobab. These show that corticular photosynthesis contributes in carbon gain in these species.

The baobab fruit (Adansonia digitata L.) is found throughout regions of Africa and is becoming increasingly recognized for its high nutrient and polyphenol content. Polyphenols have been beneficial for their effects on reducing the glycemic response (GR) and for improving various other metabolic parameters. Based on previous research, it was hypothesized that the baobab fruit extract would reduce starch digestion in vitro and would show potential for reducing the GR and for increasing satiety and diet-induced thermogenesis in humans. Six extracts of baobab from 6 different locations in Africa were measured for their antioxidant and polyphenol content using the ferric ion-reducing antioxidant power and the Folin-Ciocalteu methods, respectively. Baobab extract was baked into white bread at different doses to determine the optimal dose for reducing starch breakdown and sugar release from white bread after an in vitro digestion procedure. In vivo, baobab extract was consumed in solution at both a low-dose (18.5 g) and a high-dose (37 g) aqueous drink in 250 mL of water along with white bread, and resulting GR, satiety, and postprandial energy expenditure were measured. All extracts in this study were shown to be good sources of polyphenols. Baobab fruit extract added to white bread at 1.88 % significantly (P < .05) reduced rapidly digestible starch from white bread samples. In vivo, the baobab fruit extract at both low and high doses significantly (P < .05) reduced GR, although there was no significant effect on satiety or on energy expenditure.

The subsistence and commercial use of baobab ( Adansonia digitata ) fruit is important to many thousands of marginalized people in the arid tropics of Africa, yet sustainable harvest levels have not previously been studied. Size-class distributions of baobab populations tend to be stable, suggesting high tolerance to fruit harvesting. However, environmental conditions have changed substantially over the last 100 years. Increasing livestock numbers, land modification and climate change are new threats which may affect tolerance to fruit harvesting. To investigate this, a deterministic stage-based population projection matrix model was developed using (a) long term baobab monitoring data from 2 sites, (b) radiocarbon age calculations, (c) extensive field surveys of population structure and fruit (and seed) production, and (d) experimental field trials on seed banks and seedling and sapling survival in relation to the presence of livestock. Projected population growth ( λ ) was then evaluated for five land-use types (nature reserves, rocky outcrops, plains, fields, and villages) under three levels of livestock (none, moderate and high stocking rates). Response to fruit harvest intensity was tested for each scenario by decreasing seed availability by 10% from 100%. High livestock numbers resulted in baobab population declines, with λ

Large baobabs are prominent in many African savannas, but the apparent lack of young trees suggests that recruitment is limited and possibly episodic. This study aims to determine if recruitment was seed or establishment (microsite) limited. From five annual seed crops, baobab seed consistently exhibits high viability (>89%) and a field trial shows they form persistent soil seed banks. Seed production is substantial (5500 ± 2334 seed/ha) and thus recruitment does not appear to be seed limited. In closed plots (excluding livestock) 6.33% of seeds emerged after 328 ± 28 (mean ± SE) days and of these 94.4% died within 21 ± 5 days of moisture stress and insect browsing. In open plots (exposed to livestock) 2% of seeds emerged after 377 ± 5 days and all died within 12 ± 5 days from goat browsing. Planted sapling survival in closed plots (65%) was much higher than in open plots (10%), with an average time to death of 10.45 ± 0.97 and 4.33 ± 0.45 months respectively. Hence seedling establishment is poor in response to infrequent rainfall and survival of seedlings and saplings, that do manage to persist, is further hampered by high livestock numbers. Recruitment is thus microsite limited in communal lands. Planting and protection from livestock is required to overcome the recruitment bottleneck.

The Glencoe baobab, a very large specimen from South Africa, split twice in 2009. Several wood samples were collected from the eastern cavity, from the outer part of the main section and also from the largest broken segment which was connected to this section. These wood samples were processed and investigated by AMS radiocarbon dating. The radiocarbon date of the oldest sample was found to be 1838 ± 21 BP, which corresponds to a calibrated age of 1835 ± 40 years. Thus, the Glencoe baobab becomes the oldest dated baobab and also the oldest angiosperm tree with accurate dating results. The distribution of dating results revealed that the Glencoe baobab is a multi-generation tree, with several standing or collapsed and partially fused stems, showing different ages.

The present study was conducted in Benin to understand the effects of provenance, genetic variation and the effects of soil physicochemical characteristics on nutrient concentration of baobab pulp, leaves and seeds. Baobab parts were sampled from genetically different populations and soils in different climatic zones of Benin. Biochemical composition of baobab pulp, leaves and seeds was matched to different provenance and physicochemical characteristics of the soil. Results showed that the physicochemical characteristics of the soil seem to influence the nutritive value of baobab parts. Specifically, highly basic soils, rich in carbon, clay, fine silt and organic matter seem to positively relate with the concentration of iron, potassium, vitamin C, carbohydrates, zinc, proteins and lipids. However, for those same soils, the observed relationship between the soils and baobab parts concentration in magnesium, calcium, vitamin A and fibers was negative. Soils rich in gross silt and sand were found to have an opposite effect on these same parameters.

The Makgadikgadi Basin in the Middle Kalahari Desert of Botswana exhibits a complex of salt pans which may partly be filled to shallow water depths during the rainy season. There is good evidence that during the Pleistocene and early Holocene a large lake existed in the Makgadikgadi Basin which, however, became increasingly smaller during the Holocene. For the late Holocene when the regional human population began to grow, no data (except for the last two centuries) about lake levels and thus surface water availability have been published. Age estimates of selected Baobab trees of two size-classes growing on “Kubu Island”, a granite outcrop which is located in a “coastal” position at the south-western edge of Sua Pan, are used to infer that at least during the early centuries of the last millennium a maximum lake level of 908 m a.s.l. was reached. During this lake phase Sua Pan and Ntwetwe Pan were interconnected and large wetlands were created. Large numbers of game and livestock could be sustained. These data are in line with palaeoclimate data, but cannot be used to differentiate the “Medieval Warm Period”, which was supposedly relatively wet, from the subsequent “Little Ice Age”, which likely was comparatively dry.

Adansonia digitata L. (Malvaceae) is a majestic tree revered in Africa for its medicinal and nutritional value. The plant parts are used to treat various ailments such as diarrhoea, malaria and microbial infections. It is reported that it is an excellent anti-oxidant due to the vitamin C content which is seven to ten times higher than the vitamin C content of oranges. Baobab has numerous biological properties including antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities amongst others. Phytochemical investigation revealed the presence of flavonoids, phytosterols, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. The seeds are a source of significant quantities of lysine, thiamine, calcium and iron. Baobab is an important commodity which is integral to the livelihood of rural communities. In addition, the global demand for baobab raw material ( e.g. seed oil, fruit pulp) by the food and beverage, nutraceutical and cosmetic industries has increased dramatically in recent years thereby increasing the commercial value and importance of this coveted African tree. In the past few years, there has been an increased demand for non-timber forest products (NTFPs), specifically baobab seed oil for inclusion in cosmetic formulations due to its high fatty acid composition. This review summarises the botanical aspects, ethnobotany, phytochemistry, biological properties and most importantly the nutritional value and commercial importance of baobab products.

In this review, several recently identified biologically active principles of selected botanical dietary supplement ingredients are described, and were isolated using classical phytochemical chromatographic methods, with various spectroscopic procedures used for their isolation and structure elucidation. A central component of such an approach is "activity-guided fractionation" to monitor the compound purification process. In vitro assays germane to cancer chemoprevention were used to facilitate the work performed. Bioactive compounds, including several new substances, were characterized from açai (Euterpe oleracea), baobab (Adansonia digitata), licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), and noni (Morinda citrifolia). Many of these compounds exhibited quite potent biological activity, but tended to be present in their plant of origin only at low concentration levels.

This study assessed the population structure of baobabs (Adansonia digitata) in Kunene, Omusati, Otjozondjupa and Zambezi Regions in northern Namibia. Data were collected from 240 trees in randomly selected baobab clusters. The stem girth at breast height (gbh, converted to stem diameter), height and crown diameter were recorded for each individual tree. Any sign of damage on the stem was recorded. Average stem densities were determined and compared between regions. Stem number per diameter classes were presented in histograms. The highest baobab density (6.7 stems per ha) was observed in Omusati Region and the lowest (0.2 stems per ha) was observed in Otjozondjupa Region. A J-shaped stem diameter distribution was observed in Zambezi Region and an inverse J-shaped distribution in Kunene Region. Bell-shaped distributions were observed in Otjozondjupa and Omusati Regions. The percentage of damaged stems in the sampled populations showed more damaged than undamaged baobabs in Kunene (63%), Omusati (83%) and Otjozondjupa (95%), but in Zambezi there were fewer damaged (46%) stems. Elephant damage accounted for 41% of the damaged stems whereas human damage was 59%. Selective protection of large baobabs by communities may attribute to the high densities and occurrence of trees in larger size classes in comparison to juveniles. Overall, the baobab population is currently considered as stable in Namibia. However, factors that negatively affect recruitment and establishment of baobab need to be monitored to ensure that a higher proportion of young trees survive. The study recommends protection and propagation of baobab seedlings in order to maintain viable populations of the species. Sustainable harvesting practices of baobab bark is also recommended. Keywords: Conservation, Life-stages, Population dynamics, Stem density, Stem diameter distribution

Several wood samples collected from Dorslandboom, a large iconic African baobab ( Adansonia digitata L.) from Namibia, were investigated by AMS radiocarbon dating subsequent to pretreatment and, alternatively, without pretreatment. The comparative statistical evaluation of results showed that there were no significant differences between fraction modern values and radiocarbon dates of the samples analyzed after pretreatment and without pretreatment, respectively. The radiocarbon date of the oldest sample was 993 ± 20 BP. Dating results also revealed that Dorslandboom is a multi-generation tree, with several stems showing different ages.

Baobabs are important to people's livelihoods as a source of food, fibre and medicine. Baobab products are increasingly being commercialised and exported around the world, and pressure on the resource is growing ( Sidibe and Williams, 2002 ). This paper examines baobab population structure and trends in northern Venda, South Africa. We compare the density and life stage data of baobabs in four land-use types (plains, rocky outcrops, fields and villages). Villages and fields had higher densities of trees (2.16 ± 0.44 and 1.13 ± 0.52 plants/ha) than plains and rock outcrops (0.96 ± 0.25 and 0.83 ± 0.24 plants/ha). All land-use types had positively skewed size-class distribution (SCD) curves and negative to flat SCD slopes indicating low recruitment relative to adult density. Villages and fields had the highest juvenile densities, but exhibited flat SCD slopes indicating lowest recruitment relative to mature plant densities. High human numbers, minimal use of baobab fruit and no protection afforded to seedlings, explains low recruitment in villages and fields. Recruitment relative to adult density was most successful in the plains, which exhibited the most positively skewed SCD curves, steepest SCD slopes and the highest percentage of juvenile plants. Overall, the population is stable with healthy numbers of mature trees. Mortality is very low, and is attributed to the lack of elephants. Quotients and the permutation index suggest that recruitment and mortality is episodic. It is concluded that current levels of recruitment are enough to maintain this population of long-lived trees. Comparisons are made with communal land elsewhere in Africa and neighbouring conservation areas, which exhibit different demographic patterns. This paper serves as a benchmark in the light of demographic changes that may arise from increased commercial use of fruit and a predicted reduction in rainfall due to climate change.

There are many fruit trees that could be integrated into dryland farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa to support income and nutritional security. Fruit contains almost all known vitamins and many essential minerals. Five important fruit species that are cross-regional include: Adansonia digitata, Tamarindus indica, Zizyphus mauritiana, Sclerocarya birrea, and Mangifera indica. While these species are well integrated in the Sahel region, besides mango, they are generally absent from smallholder farms in East and Central Africa. Fruits of the species in this region are mostly harvested unsustainably from the wild communal areas. Unlike the situation in the neighboring Southern Africa region, where S. birrea is utilized extensively in the wine industry, there is virtually no use for the tree in this region, largely because of limited knowledge. Z. mauritiana use is also limited because of low quality germplasm—the hard stone clings to the flesh. An analytical framework based on five factors (site requirements, genetic variability, propagation methods, nutritional properties and utilization, and commercial potential) is used to compare knowledge status and gaps on the species in the region. While this analysis reveals the existence of considerable knowledge between and within the species, lack of improved germplasm and markets emerge as two key constraints limiting their conservation through on-farm planting. Key research and development needs identified are: (a) fostering cross-collaboration and knowledge exchange with other regions where the species are fairly well utilized, and (b) developing criteria and indicators for monitoring impacts and increased investments on the “Big Five” on livelihood of dryland communities and on biodiversity conservation.

The number of methods to measure antioxidants in botanicals, foods, nutraceuticals and other dietary supplements are increased considerably in the last 10 years. However most techniques require long experimental times and high costs to determine antioxidant capacity of hydrophilic or lipophilic compound in a food mixture. By means of a photochemiluminescence method, we assessed the Integral Antioxidant Capacity (IAC) which represents the sum of the antioxidant capacity of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants. In this study the IAC of extracts from Adansonia digitatata (i.e. red fiber, fruit pulp and leaves), was assessed in comparison to those deriving from other natural sources of antioxidants (i.e. orange, kiwi, apple and strawberry). When compared, IAC values for the examined product resulted as follows: Adansonia digitata red fibre ⋙ Adansonia digitata fruit pulp ≫ Adansonia digitata fresh leaves ≫ Adansonia digitata seeds ⩾ Adansonia digitata radix cuticle ⩾ orange fresh pulp ≫ strawberry fresh fruit pulp > Adansonia digitata radix > bilberry fresh pulp ⩾ kiwi fruit pulp. Results clearly indicate the interesting antioxidants properties of Adansonia digitata red fibre, in particular the IAC value of baobab red fibre was 66 time higher than that of orange pulp, with value of 1617.3 μmol/g and 24.3 μmol/g, respectively.

The large girth and immense size of the baobab has caused many to speculate about its age. Unfortunately reliable age estimates cannot be determined from growth rates as the girth varies in response to different moisture regimes. In a similar way, ages cannot be determined from ring-width measurements or X-ray densitometry as the absorbent nature of the soft fibrous wood and distortion upon drying prevent the application of these techniques. The Southern Hemisphere bomb radiocarbon curve was used to demonstrate that the rings of a recently-fallen baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) from Kruger National Park appear to be annual. The detrended C isotope values of finely-ground wholewood from another baobab specimen were found to be highly associated with January precipitation (r = 0.72; p < 0.01). This study demonstrates that high resolution information about past climates may be obtained by analysing the C isotope values from baobab samples even if distortion of ring-widths has occurred during drying. However, this relationship must be replicated before the baobab can be demonstrated to be a reliable palaeoclimatic proxy.

In west Africa, the alarming rate of land use intensification and the assumed deterioration of parkland species calls for assessments of locally valued non-timber forest product (NTFP) yielding populations. This study focused on the baobab tree, Adansonia digitata Linn., in Cinzana, Mali. Here by conducting biological inventories in different land use types and interviews we addressed the following central questions. (1) How does the harvesting of baobab NTFPs in different land use types (fallow, cropland, and village (habitation) areas) affect the viability of its population? (2) By which ways do humans, other than by harvesting, affect the viability of the population? The viability of a population is, in this study, treated as a characteristic that is determined by the mature population size and its regeneration potential (recruit population). Baobab products in Cinzana are used on a regular basis and valued in a cultural context, like in many parts of west Africa. For the local society, the sustained viability of the baobab populations is therefore essential. Fruit harvesting has an impact on dispersal and establishment, while leaf harvesting causes mutilation that reduces the number of fruits on each tree. Mutilation was more severe in cropland than in fallows, and cropland individuals were most prone to damages from plowing and livestock. The baobab populations were, however, more dense and comprised more recruits, in cropland and village areas compared to fallows, and seedlings were in fact not found in fallow. These differences are explained by management practices related to the land use type. In addition to the differences in baobab density and population structure between cropland and fallows, the weak correlation between density of recruits and mature individuals testifies to the importance of the specific ecological role that humans play in baobab dispersal and establishment. Clearly, harvesting is not the only way by which humans influence the viability of baobab populations. Some practices are beneficial, either intentional (e.g. seedling protection, transplanting) or unintentional (e.g. dispersal of seeds in garbage), while others are detrimental (e.g. livestock browsing, plowing). At present local management practices contribute to sustain the viability of the species. The results point to the fact that the baobab population is not declining but in need of management that secures the maintenance of a genetically diverse population.

Introduction Adansonia digitata leaves are used for the traditional treatment of hypertension in Senegal. This study evaluated the relaxant effect of a hydroethanolic extract of leaves of Adansonia digitata (ADF) in artery rings, and investigated the underlying mechanism. Methods Vascular reactivity was assessed in organ chambers. Rings were either untreated or incubated with a pharmacological tool for 30 min before contraction of coronary artery rings with either U46619 or phenylephrine, and the subsequent addition of ADF. In some experiments, the endothelium was removed mechanically. The phosphorylation level of target proteins was assessed by Western blot analysis. Results ADF induced concentration-dependent relaxations in coronary artery rings with endothelium, which reached 100% at a concentration as low as 10 μg/ml. The relaxation to ADF was significantly reduced by NLA (NO synthase inhibitor) and by the combination of Tram-34 and apamin (inhibitors of intermediate and small conductance calcium-dependent K+ channels, respectively), not affected by indomethacin (cyclooxygenase inhibitor), and abolished by wortmannin (PI3-kinase inhibitor) and MnTMPyP (membrane permeant superoxide dismutase mimetic). ADF caused relaxations in the rat superior mesenteric artery, carotid artery and aortic rings but not in the secondary mesenteric artery and femoral artery rings. ADF induced a sustained phosphorylation of Akt and eNOS at Ser1177 in cultured porcine coronary artery endothelial cells. Conclusion The Adansonia digitata leave extract induced potent endothelium-dependent relaxations, involving predominantly NO and endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization. Such vasorelaxant effects may explain the antihypertensive use of this plant in traditional African medicine.

The leaves of the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) are a staple of populations in many parts of Africa, especially the central region of the continent. Among the people who comprise the Hausa ethnic group in particular, it serves as the main ingredient of a soup called "miyar kuka." However, the literature contains few studies of the nutritional quality of baobab leaf. In the present report, we show that baobab leaf contains 10.6% (dry weight) protein and an amino acid composition which compares favorably to that of an "ideal" protein: valine (5.9%), phenylalanine + tyrosine (9.6%), isoleucine (6.3%), lysine (5.7%), arginine (8.5%), threonine (3.9%), cysteine + methionine (4.8%), tryptophan (1.5%). In terms of mineral content, baobab leaf is an excellent source of calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, and zinc. These data indicate that in terms of both quality and quantity, baobab leaf can serve as a significant protein and mineral source for those populations for whom it is a staple food.

Variations in the morphological features of Adansonia digitata L. were studied, which may be used for the delimitation of varieties in the species. The wide range of uses of these naturalised trees in the world have in recent time witnessed increasing demand of their foliar, bark, root, fruit and seed products in nutritional, fibre and medical applications. The upsurge demand for these products needs to be balanced with new varieties of improved performance to meet the supply chain. To achieve this, the present study was aimed at setting the foundation of variability analysis based on morphological features to detect promising varieties for mapping out of future breeding schemes of this multi-purpose tree. The fresh specimens were collected in open vegetation, plantations, houses and bushy areas from mature plant stands in Sudan and Guinea savannah of Nigeria. Both qualitative and quantitative characters studied, coded and subjected to cluster analysis. Some morphological characters indicated close affinity amongst the varieties of A. digitata. Features of taxonomic importance amongst the varieties of A. digitata include leaf surface, pod surface, leaf stalk surface, pod surface, pod end form, pod colour, pod size, stalk size, number of seed per pod, leaf size, seed size, occurrence of leaflet number and leaflet size. Within the species, there is evidence indicating the existence of a number of local types differing in habit, vigour, size, and quality of the fruits and vitamin content. These features were considered to be taxonomically relevant in the delimitation of these varieties. Numerical analysis of the qualitative and quantitative characters data using cluster analysis – average linkage, single linkage, complete linkage and centroid methods delimit all the Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) into four varieties hence, infraspecific classification of A. digitata is hereby proposed.

The effect of different processing techniques on the antinutritional factors inherent in the seeds of baobab (Adansonia digitata) was investigated. The processing methods, which included dehulling, cold-water, hot-water, hot-alkali and acid treatments, revealed that the concentration of tannic acid was reduced significantly by all the processing techniques except for dehulling. The activity of the amylase inhibitors in the seeds was also reduced significantly by dehulling, cold-water and hot-alkali treatments while the hot-water and hot-acid treatments increased the activity of the amylase inhibitors.