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Low-level cadmium exposure has been linked to chronic diseases, but the importance of marijuana use as a source of cadmium remains unknown. We aimed to determine the association of marijuana use with blood cadmium (BCd) and urinary cadmium (UCd) levels.We abstracted data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 2009-2016. We modeled lifetime marijuana exposure accounting for both duration and frequency of exposure. We used adjusted ratio of geometric means (ARM) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) to compare outcomes among groups of marijuana exposure, relative to never users. The UCd level was adjusted for creatinine excretion.We included 163,250 adults (mean age, 38.7 years; 50% women). The ARM of BCd was 1.28 (95% CI = 1.04, 1.57), 1.40 (95% CI = 1.11, 1.76), and 1.77 (95% CI = 1.51, 2.09) in current users with2 uses per week, 2-3 uses per week, and ≥4 uses per week, respectively. Marijuana use for ≥15 years was associated with both higher cadmium burden in adults with2 uses per week (ARM of 1.30 (95% CI = 1.04-1.62) for BCd and 1.48 (95% CI: 1.05, 2.09) for UCd or ≥4 uses per week (ARM of 1.69 (95% CI = 1.40, 2.05) for BCd and 1.38 (95% CI = 1.11, 1.72) for UCd. In former users, marijuana use was significantly associated with higher UCd levels in those with ≥15 years of use [ARM of 1.39 (95% CI = 1.14, 1.69) for those with2 uses/week and 1.51 (95% CI = 1.19, 1.92) for those with ≥4 uses/week].The BCd level was higher in both current and former marijuana users than in never users. Marijuana use was also associated with higher UCd levels after a long-term use.

Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 2013–2016 were used to compare observed levels of cadmium, lead, and total mercury in blood among US residents aged ≥12 years who were users of cigars, cigarettes, cigars and cigarettes, e-cigarettes and dual users of cigarettes and e-cigarettes. Total sample size available for analysis was 1139. Adjusted geometric means (AGM) among cigarette, cigar, e-cigarette, cigarette and cigar, and cigarette-e-cigarette users were comparable for blood cadmium lead, and total mercury. Cigar only users had lower AGM than cigar and cigarette users for total mercury (0.56 vs. 0.97 μg/L, p = 0.03). There is no evidence yet that can show concentrations of blood and urine cadmium, lead, and mercury among e-cigarette users are any different than among cigarette and/or dual users of cigarettes and e-cigarettes.

Heavy metals exposure has been widely recognized as a risk factor for human health. However, limited information is available about the impacts of heavy metals on rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Herein, we estimated the associations of 3 blood and 11 urinary metals with the risk of RA among 49830 U.S. adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 1999–2018. In the single-exposure model, blood cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), urinary Cd, Pb, antimony (Sb), tungsten (Tu), and uranium (Ur) were identified to be positively associated with RA risk. Furthermore, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, quantile-based g computation (qgcomp), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) analyses consistently showed that both blood and urinary metals-mixed exposure were positively correlated with the risk of RA, and highlighted that Cd and Pb were responsible for the outcomes. Such associations were more evident in the young and middle-aged population. These findings indicated that exposure to heavy metals increased RA risk, and advanced the identification of risk factors for RA.

Background Mexico City has air, water and food pollution problems; however, human exposure to cadmium and its sources have not been described. Objectives To determine the blood cadmium (BCd) level and its main exposure sources among males aged 40 years or older living in different areas of Mexico City. Methods After receiving informed consent, we interviewed 702 males aged ≥40 years to collect data on their sociodemographic characteristics, lifetime occupation, smoking history, and dietary habits, using a validated questionnaire. The BCd level (μg/L) was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Results The BCd mean level ± SD was 2.61 ± 0.82 μg/L, and 20% of men reported a potential cadmium occupational exposure. After adjusting for age and other potential confounders, the main determinants of the BCd level were the current smoking status at interview, with low (β≤8.5packs/year vs. non-smoker = 0.46; 95% CI: 0.28–0.64 μg/L; p 8.5 packs/year vs. non-smoker = 0.71; 95% CI: 0.56–0.87 μg/L; p 1–3servings/month vs. No = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.01–0.26 μg/L; p Conclusions The BCd levels observed in this population are high and only similar to those observed in workers from a sanitary landfill area in Southern Thailand. Potential environmental Cd exposure sources, such as industrial activity and previous land use, in the West and Center areas of the city should be explored in detail, especially in vulnerable population groups, such as children.

Background There have been increasing concerns over health effects of low level exposure to cadmium, especially those on bones and kidneys. Objective To explore how age-adjusted geometric means of blood cadmium in adults varied by race/Hispanic origin, sex, and smoking status among U.S. adults and the extent to which the difference in blood cadmium by race/Hispanic origin and sex may be explained by intensity of smoking, a known major source of cadmium exposure. Methods Our sample included 7,368 adults from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011–2014. With direct age adjustment, geometric means of blood cadmium and number of cigarettes smoked per day were estimated for subgroups defined by race/Hispanic origin, smoking status, and sex using interval regression, which allows mean estimation in the presence of left- and right-censoring. Results Among never and former smoking men and women, blood cadmium tended to be higher for non-Hispanic Asian adults than adults of other race/Hispanic origin. Among current smokers, who generally had higher blood cadmium than never and former smokers, non-Hispanic white, black, and Asian adults had similarly elevated blood cadmium compared to Hispanic adults. A separate analysis revealed that non-Hispanic white adults tended to have the highest smoking intensity regardless of sex, than adults of the other race/Hispanic origin groups. Conclusions The observed pattern provided evidence for smoking as a major source of cadmium exposure, yet factors other than smoking also appeared to contribute to higher blood cadmium of non-Hispanic Asian adults.

Immigrant women are often identified as being particularly vulnerable to environmental exposures and health effects. The availability of biomonitoring data on newcomers is limited, thus, presenting a challenge to public health practitioners in the identification of priorities for intervention.In fulfillment of data needs, the purpose of this study was to characterize blood concentrations of cadmium (Cd) among newcomer women of reproductive age (19-45 years of age) living in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), Canada and to assess potential sources of environmental exposures.A community-based model, engaging peer researchers from the communities of interest, was used for recruitment and follow-up purposes. Blood samples were taken from a total of 211 newcomer women from South and East Asia, representing primary, regional origins of immigrants to the GTA, and environmental exposure sources were assessed via telephone survey. Metal concentrations were measured in blood samples (diluted with 0.5% (v/v) ammonium hydroxide and 0.1% (v/v) octylphenol ethoxylate) using a quadrupole ICP-MS. Survey questions addressed a wide range of environmental exposure sources, including dietary and smoking patterns and use of nutritional supplements, herbal products and cosmetics.A geometric mean (GM) blood Cd concentration of 0.39µg/L (SD:±2.07µg/L) was determined for study participants (min/max:0.045µg/L (LOD)/2.36µg/L). Several variables including low educational attainment (Relative Ratio (RR) (adjusted)=1.50; 95% CI 1.17-1.91), milk consumption (RR (adjusted)=0.86; 95% CI 0.76-0.97), and use of zinc supplements (RR (adjusted)=0.76; 95% CI 0.64-0.95) were observed to be significantly associated with blood Cd concentrations in the adjusted regression model. The variable domains socioeconomic status (RBlood Cd concentrations fell below those generally considered to be of human health concern. However, negative health effects cannot be entirely excluded, especially for those that fall in the upper percentile range of the distribution, given the mounting evidence for negative health outcomes at low environmental exposure concentrations.

Ambient PM2.5 pollution is a global environmental problem. PM2.5 can act as a carrier of heavy metals. However, the relationship between PM2.5 exposure and blood cadmium (Cd) level in children was less understood. Based on the data of hourly collected PM2.5 and blood Cd level of 13,626 children aged 0-14 years from Apr. 2008 to Feb. 2013 in Beijing of China, we investigated the short-term effects of PM2.5 exposure on blood Cd level. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) were utilized to explore the potential association between PM2.5 exposure and blood Cd level of children. The results showed that the mean blood Cd level was 0.64 μg/L. There was a significant association between PM2.5 exposure and blood Cd level (P 0.05); there was also no gender difference of children on blood Cd level (P > 0.05). The present study demonstrates the importance of controlling the PM2.5 bound Cd exposure, and environmental countermeasures should be implemented stringently to reduce their impact on children's health.

Lead (Pb) interferes with various bodily functions. Although high blood Pb (Pb-B) levels in residents from Kabwe, Zambia have been reported, the accumulation pattern of other metals remains unknown. The study was designed to determine the Pb-B, blood cadmium (Cd-B), and zinc (Zn-B) values of 504 representative samples from Kabwe, as well as the potential associated adverse health effects. The Pb-B level ranged from 0.79 to 154.75 mu g/dL and generally increased in areas near the mine. A significant elevation of Cd-B was observed in two areas (0.37 +/- 0.26 and 0.32 +/- 0.30 mu g/L) where the two highest mean Pb-B levels were recorded. By contrast, the Zn-B values did not differ greatly with respect to area. Some blood biochemical parameters relating to hepatic and renal functions were out of the normal range in approximately 20-50% of studied adult participants. The delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (delta -ALAD) activity was significantly inhibited in the two areas contaminated by Pb and Cd. A significant negative relationship was observed between metal levels and clinical parameters, e.g., between Pb-B and delta -ALAD for all the age categories and between Cd-B and the estimated glomerular filtration rate for all the age categories except 0-4 years. The elevated Cd-B in areas near the mine relative to the other areas suggested the potential adverse health effects of Cd and/or the interaction of Pb and Cd. A significant association of metal levels with clinical parameters also indicated the effects of metal exposure on hematopoietic, hepatic, and renal systems. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Although the benefits of fish consumption are widely recognized, seafood may also be a source of exposure to heavy metals such as cadmium. Many types of seafood are rich in cadmium, but bioavailability and potential for toxicity after consumption is less clear. This study investigates the relationship between seafood intake and the level of cadmium (Cd) in the blood in a 252 person cohort of avid seafood consumers in the Long Island Study of Seafood Consumption (New York). Blood cadmium is an established biomarker of cadmium exposure, reflecting both recent and decade-long exposure. Data on the amounts and frequency of eating various types of seafood were self-reported by avid seafood consumers recruited in 2011–2012. After adjusting for age, BMI, sex, current smoking status, and income in a linear regression model, we found no association between regular seafood intake ( β = −0.01; p = 0.11) but did identify an association between salmon intake in cups/week (ln transformed) ( β = 0.20; p = 0.001) and blood cadmium. After accounting for salmon, no other types of seafood were meaningfully associated with blood cadmium. No association was found between rice intake, blood zinc, or dietary iron or calcium and blood cadmium. Results suggest that seafood is not a major source of cadmium exposure, but that salmon intake does marginally increase blood cadmium levels. Given that cadmium levels in salmon are not higher than those in many other seafood species, the association with salmon intake is likely attributed to higher consumption of salmon in this population.

Gender differences in blood cadmium concentrations and the effect of iron deficiency on blood cadmium levels were analyzed in a representative sample of Koreans assessed in the Korean National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2008-2011.A rolling sampling design was used to perform a complex, stratified, multistage probability cluster survey of a representative sample of the non-institutionalized civilian population in South Korea. Serum ferritin was categorized as low (15.0 μg/L), low normal (15.0-30.0 μg/L for females and 15.0-50.0 μg/L for males), and normal (≥30.0 μg/L for females and ≥50.0 μg/L for males), and its association with blood cadmium levels was assessed after adjustment for various demographic and lifestyle factors.The geometric mean (GM) of the blood cadmium level was significantly higher in females than in males, and significantly higher in older individuals for both genders. After controlling for covariates, multiple regression analysis with interaction terms showed that blood cadmium was correlated with serum ferritin levels only in pre-menopausal females.Iron deficiency is associated with blood cadmium levels in a representative sample of pre-menopausal females, as evaluated in KNHANES. Gender differences in blood cadmium concentration may not be due solely to an iron deficiency-associated increase in blood cadmium.

Cadmium exposure may be associated with high risk of hypertension. But inconsistent results have been reported. In this study, the association of blood pressure (BP) with blood cadmium (BCd) and the possible influencing factors were investigated. A total of 181 persons (71 men and 110 women) living near a cadmium smelter participated in this study. The participants completed a questionnaire and BP, BCd and related biochemical indicators were measured. The geometric mean of BCd was 3.84μg/L and 3.32μg/L for women and men. The systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure both increased with the increasing of BCd. The BP in women was positively correlated with BCd (p

Children's blood-lead concentration (B-Pb) is well studied, but little is known about cadmium (B-Cd) and mercury (B-Hg), in particular for central Europe. Such information is necessary for risk assessment and management. Therefore, we here describe and compare B-Pb, B-Cd and B-Hg in children in six European, and three non-European cities, and identify determinants of these exposures. About 50 school children (7–14 years) from each city were recruited (totally 433) in 2007–2008. Interview and questionnaire data were obtained. A blood sample was analyzed: only two laboratories with strict quality control were used. The European cities showed only minor differences for B-Cd (geometric means 0.11–0.17 μg/L) and B-Pb (14–20 μg/L), but larger for B-Hg (0.12–0.94 μg/L). Corresponding means for the non-European countries were 0.21–0.26, 32–71, and 0.3–3.2 μg/L, respectively. For B-Cd in European samples, traffic intensity close to home was a statistically significant determinant, for B-Hg fish consumption and amalgam fillings, and for B-Pb sex (boys higher). This study shows that European city children's B-Cd and B-Pb vary only little between countries; B-Hg differs considerably, due to varying tooth restoration practices and fish intake. Traffic intensity seemed to be a determinant for B-Cd. The metal concentrations were low from a risk perspective but the chosen non-European cities showed higher concentrations than the cities in Europe. Keywords: Cadmium, Mercury, Lead, Children, Exposure, Biomonitoring

We present data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008-2009 on the distribution of blood cadmium levels and their association with iron deficiency in a representative sample of the adult Korean population.Serum ferritin was categorized into three levels: low (serum ferritin15.0 μg/L), low normal (15.0-30.0 μg/L for women and 15.0-50.0 for men), and normal (≥30.0 μg/L for women and ≥50.0 for men), and its association with blood cadmium level was assessed after adjustment for various demographic and lifestyle factors.Geometric means of blood cadmium in the low serum ferritin group in women, men, and all participants were significantly higher than in the normal group. Additionally, multiple regression analysis after adjusting for various covariates showed that blood cadmium was significantly higher in the low-ferritin group in women, men, and all participants compared with the normal group. We also found an association between serum ferritin and blood cadmium among never-smoking participants.We found, similar to other recent population-based studies, an association between iron deficiency and increased blood cadmium in men and women, independent of smoking status. The results of the present study show that iron deficiency is associated with increased levels of blood cadmium in the general population.

Decreased fruit and vegetable consumption, along with elevated blood cadmium concentrations, are frequently observed among cigarette smokers. Few studies have investigated whether the blood cadmium concentrations of cigarette smokers are associated with the consumption of antioxidative nutrients, as well as foods containing high concentrations of antioxidative nutrients and phytochemicals, such as fruits and vegetables. In this study, we aimed to determine where there is any relationship between blood cadmium concentration and the consumption of certain foods and nutrients in adult male smokers. Blood cadmium concentrations in whole blood samples from 546 adult men, whose pregnant wives were registered in the Mothers and Children's Environmental Health Study, were analyzed using the graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry method. Dietary intakes were assessed using a semiquantitative FFQ. Blood cadmium concentrations were higher in the smokers than in the nonsmokers (P < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis with covariates revealed that blood cadmium concentrations were negatively associated with intakes of fruit (P = 0.001), vitamin C (P = 0.035), and fiber (P = 0.049), but only in the smokers. These results warrant future studies to explore any mechanisms responsible for fruit's beneficial role against elevated blood cadmium concentrations in smokers.

Background: Primitive electronic waste (e-waste) recycling is ongoing in Guiyu, and thus toxic heavy metals may keep on threatening to the health of local children. Some related factors may contribute to the elevation of blood lead levels (BLLs) or blood cadmium levels (BCLs). Objective: To investigate the children's BLLs and BCLs in Guiyu and Chendian as compare to discuss the effects of primitive e-waste recycling activities on children's health. Methods: Two hundred and seventy-eight children less than 8 years who lived in Guiyu and Chendian were observed, and their BLLs and BCLs were determined by graphite atomizer absorption spectrophotometer. Questionnaire survey for risk factors was also performed and data were analyzed using spearman correlation analyses and logistic regression analyses. Results: Children living in Guiyu had significantly higher BLLs and BCLs as compared with those living in Chendian (p 10 {mu}g/dL, and 20.1% of children (31/154) had BCLs>2 {mu}g/L, compared with 38.7% of children (48/124) had BLLs>10 {mu}g/dL and 7.3% of children (9/124) had BCLs>2 {mu}g/L in Chendian (p

A simple, high-throughput method for determining total cadmium, mercury, and lead in blood in cases of suspected exposure, using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), has been developed and validated. One part matrix-matched standards, blanks, or aliquots of blood specimens were diluted with 49 parts of a solution containing 0.25% (w/w) tetramethylammonium hydroxide; 0.05% v/v Triton X-100 (blood cell membranes and protein solubilization); 0.01% (w/v) ammonium pyrolidinedithiocarbamate (mercury memory effect prevention and oxidation state stabilization, solubilization by complexation of all three metals); 1% v/v isopropanol (signal enhancement); and 10 μg/L iridium (internal standard). Thus the final dilution factor is 1 + 49. The method provides the basis for the determination of total cadmium, mercury, and lead for assessment of environmental, occupational, accidental ingestion or elevated exposures from other means. Approximately 80 specimens, including blanks, calibration standards, and quality control materials can be processed in an 8-h day. The method has been evaluated by examining reference materials from the National Institute of Standards and Technology, as well as by participation in six rounds of proficiency testing intercomparisons led by the Wadsworth Center of the New York State Department of Health. This method was developed for the purpose of increasing U.S. emergency response laboratory capacity. To this end, 33 U.S. state, and 1 district health department laboratories have validated this method in their own laboratories.

Succimer lowers blood lead concentrations in children, and the structure of succimer chelates of lead and cadmium are similar. Using blood samples from a randomized trial of succimer for lead poisoning, however, we found that succimer did not lower blood cadmium in children with background exposure.

Blood cadmium concentrations were determined in 377 adults, 297 men and 80 women, randomly selected from the Rabat Transfusion Center, Morocco. The mean blood cadmium level was 1.1+/-0.7 microg/l, which was higher than in French subjects, with an average of 0.7+/-0.6 microg/l. In Moroccan people, the mean blood cadmium concentration of men, 1.1+/-0.8 microg/l, was significantly higher than that of women, 0.8+/-0.4 microg/l, whereas in the French people tested, there was no statistically significant difference between men and women. In Morocco, employment of men and the smoking habits of men and women were linked to an increase of blood cadmium levels. The significantly higher level observed in men could be due to a higher percentage of men who were smokers and to professional activity leading to increased exposure to cadmium.

The cadmium levels in kidney cortex (K-Cd) did not differ statistically between 10 nonsmoking farmers from the south of Sweden, who had a high intake of locally produced food and who were affected by acid precipitation (as indicated by low pH in the drinking water from their private wells) and 10 farmers less affected (medians: K-Cd, 18 vs. 14 microg/g; water pH, 5.2 vs. 7.8). Neither did 10 farmers selected because of "high" blood cadmium (B-Cd) differ from 10 with "low" [medians: K-Cd, 15 vs. 9 microg/g; B-Cd, 2.6 vs. 1.3 nmol/L (0.29 vs. 0.14 microg/L)]. In all 40 farmers, there was an increase of urinary cadmium levels (U-Cd) with decreasing drinking water pH (r(s) = -0.32, P = 0.045). Further, K-Cd increased with rising B-Cd (r(s) = 0.33, P = 0.037), and both B-Cd (r(s) = 0.73, P = 0.0005), and U-Cd (r(s) = 0.74, P = 0.0005) rose with increasing age. Further, there was an association between U-Cd and B-Cd (r(s) = 0.68, P = 0.0005). We could not demonstrate with certainty any effect of the acid precipitation on the cadmium retention in the farmers, although the association between U-Cd and drinking water pH deserves further study.

This survey was conducted in Seoul, Pusan, Chunan, and Haman in Korea to clarify cadmium and lead burden in the general Korean populations in terms of dietary intake of cadmium and lead and the concentrations of the two metals in blood. People who participated in the study were 141 healthy nonsmoking women aged 21-56 years. Determination of cadmium and lead in 24-hr food duplicates and blood samples was carried out by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The geometric means for the four sites in combination were 21.2 micrograms/day for dietary cadmium, 20.5 micrograms/day for dietary lead, 1.27 ng/ml for blood cadmium, and 44.3 ng/ml for blood lead. Cadmium intake from boiled rice accounted for 23% of total daily cadmium intake. The counterpart value for lead intake from boiled rice was 12%. Blood cadmium levels and dietary cadmium intake were lower and blood lead level and dietary lead intake were higher in Korean women than in Japanese women. The values for dietary cadmium are similar to, and the values for dietary lead are somewhat lower than, the levels reported from Europe and the United States. Dietary intake was the main source of cadmium exposure, whereas lead exposure was from both ambient air and foods in the Korean population.

The association of cadmium exposure with area of residence, blood pressure, and arterial hypertensive disease was examined in 230 reindeer herders in northernmost arctic Finland. Blood cadmium concentration averaged 10.0 nmol/1, and was three times higher in smokers than in nonsmokers (16.7 vs. 5.5 nmol/l). Concentrations increased from the southwestern to the northeastern area west of the Kola Peninsula, Russia, both in nonsmokers (3.1 vs. 6.8 nmol/l) and smokers (10.8 vs. 32.0 nmol/l). High cadmium levels were most common in the northeast: 32% of the values were at least 15 nmol/l, 10% at least 45 nmol/l (health-based limit of WHO), and 3% at least 90 nmol/l (the critical limit for renal damage). High cadmium concentration was associated with a rise in blood pressure; the rise was particularly pronounced in subjects with hypertensive diseases. These associations were not affected by age, body mass index, smoking, and alcohol consumption. The results suggest that cadmium exposure may have harmful health effects in arctic Finland and emphasize the importance of reducing pollution from industrial sources in the Kola Peninsula.

Cadmium concentrations in whole blood were measured in subjects with no occupational exposure to cadmium. The study covered 128 males and 150 females from the three main ethnic groups in Singapore (namely Chinese, Malays and Indians). The geometric means (GM) of blood cadmium (CdB) levels of non-smoking males and females were 0.21 microgram/l and 0.26 microgram/l, respectively. Smokers had higher GM CdB levels than non-smokers. Significant ethnic differences were observed in both sexes, with Indian males having the highest GM CdB level of 0.48 microgram/l. Among the females, the Chinese had the highest GM CdB level: 0.33 microgram/l. Differences in dietary habits may have contributed to the observed ethnic differences in blood cadmium levels.

Blood and urine cadmium concentrations have been determined in a group of 85 Inuit residents of Kuujjuaq, Quebec, Canada, drawn from actively hunting households. Mean blood cadmium values are high at 39.4 nmol/l, varying between 6.6 in non-smokers and 60.3 in smokers. No association of blood cadmium with self-reported offal consumption could be found. Median urine cadmium concentrations are elevated at 2.3 μmol/mol creatinine and rise substantially with age: 0.9 in the 30–39 age group; 3.2 among the 40–59 age group; and 4.1 in the 60 and over.

The analytical performance of a group of Italian laboratories with regard to the determination of blood lead (BPb), blood cadmium (BCd), serum aluminum (SAl), serum copper (SCu), and serum zinc (SZn) was estimated from the results of quality assurance programs carried out in Italy between 1983 and 1990. Mean imprecision, mean inaccuracy, and percentage of acceptable results provided, according to preset limits, were adopted as indexes of performance. Positive trends were observed, over the course of the years, toward smaller bias and lower percentage of laboratories with poor performance. At present, taking into account results from all participants, mean absolute inaccuracy can be evaluated as 40 μg/liter (mean concentration: 440 μg/liter) for BPb, 0.55 μg/liter (mean concentration: 3.6 μg/liter) for BCd, and 13.4 μg/liter (mean concentration: 77 μg/liter) for SAl. At mean concentrations of 0.94 mg/liter of SCu and 1.08 mg/liter of SZn, mean absolute inaccuracies were 0.130 mg/liter and 0.162 mg/liter, respectively. The percentage of laboratories providing results within established limits for at least 80% of the examined samples is rather high for BCd (61.9%), SCu (43.8%), and BPb (41.2%). On the contrary, only 15.7% of laboratories achieved good performance in SZn analysis and none in SAl determination.

Summary Serum ascorbic acid (SAA) levels were determined in 500 subjects aged 55–75 years participating in the New Risk Factors (NRF) Survey between March and December 1990. In the total sample mean concentration of SAA was 8.75 mg/1 (95 % confidence interval: 8.41–9.20). SAA levels of 2 mg/l or less (severe hypovitaminosis C) were found in 19 subjects (3.8 %). A further 9.6% of subjects (n=48) has SAA levels between 2 and 4 mg/l (marginal hypovitaminosis C). Subjects with hypovitaminosis C reported a significantly higher daily cigarette consumption and had higher blood lead (B-Pb) and blood cadmium (B-Cd) levels. An Inverse relationship was found between SAA levels and smoking status, body mass index (BMI) and B-Pb. Among current smokers aged 55–65 years the prevalence of hypovitaminosis C was not significantly higher than in non smokers (x 2 was 2.4 for severe and 4.7 for marginal hypovitaminosis C, respectively). On the contrary, in subjects aged 66–75 years the occurrence of hypovitaminosis C was significantly higher in smokers than in non-smokers (x 2 was 6.6 for severe and 10.3 for marginal hypovitaminosis C. respectively).

The mutagenicity of the chromosomes of the peripheral lymphocytes of 147 Greenlandic Eskimos living in the district of Angmagssalik, Greenland, and in Denmark, was evaluated by means of the sister chromatid exchange (SCE) test. Thirty cells from each person were examined. The purpose of the investigation was to determine if there was any relationship between mutagenic activity and diet, and hence the elements selenium, cadmium, mercury and lead. The probands were divided into three groups according to their intake of seal meat or industrially prepared food: group 1, those eating seal at least six times per week; group 2, two to five times per week; and group 3 once each week or not at all. The statistical analysis was performed by means of multiple linear regression analyses, with diet, living district, sex, age, tobacco smoking, and blood lead and mercury concentrations as variables. Forty-eight percent of the variation in SCE could be explained by differences in diet, living district, age, and tobacco consumption. Groups 1 and 2 had a 1.7 and 0.65 times higher SCE/cell, respectively, than group 3. For every additional 10 years of age of the probands, the SCE/cell increased by 0.4, and for every 10 g of tobacco smoked per day the SCE/cell was 0.7 higher compared to non-smokers. When priority was given to blood Hg concentration in the calculation, 16.3% of the total variation in SCE/cell could be explained. An increase in the blood Hg concentration of 10 micrograms l-1 corresponded to an increase of 0.3 SCE/cell. In 92 individuals blood Se and Cd concentrations were also analysed. The variables, tobacco smoking, diet, living district and Cd explained 53% of the total variation in SCE. Giving priority to the blood Hg and Cd concentrations, explained 21.4% of the total variation in SCE/cell. An increase of 10 micrograms l-1 in blood Cd and Hg corresponded to an increase in SCE/cell of 0.7 and 0.2, respectively. No influence on the SCE/cell could be attributed to the blood Pb and Se concentrations. Evaluated by the SCE test, seal diet, smoking, living district and blood Hg and Cd concentrations all contribute to mutagenicity in Greenlandic Eskimos, with seal diet as the most important of the factors examined.

70 hypertensive patients and 70 controls matched for age and sex were investigated for a possible relationship between blood-cadmium and hypertension. No significant differences between the two groups were detected, although the blood-cadmium level was significantly higher in smokers as compared to non-smokers. These data do not support the hypothesis that cadmium is involved in the development of hypertension in man.