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Series of lake terraces were discovered on unconsolidated Cambrian siltstones in Al-Tayan Wadi along the eastern escarpment of the Dead Sea Rift (DSR). Altitudes were studied with DGPS and calcareous stromatolitic crusts were U/Th-dated and analysed for microstructure, mineral composition and Mg/Ca ratios. These terraces represent high stands of the glacial Lake Lisan, ~100 m higher than previously known. Terraces up to −19 m (with respect to present sea level) were discovered and dated to the early MIS 5a. At 79.2 ± 3.3 to 76.5 ± 5.6 ka, Lake Lisan stood at −56 to −66 m, indicating extraordinary humid conditions in the Levant during MIS 5a. Then the lake level dropped dramatically to −350 m at ~63.6 ± 0.56 ka, implying drier conditions during H6 and MIS 4. Just before 32 ka the lake recovered to > −137 m, suggesting a higher water input to Lake Lisan during MIS 3. At ~30 ka, during early MIS 2, the lake receded to −148 m associated with H3, further dropping to −152 m at ~27 ka BP and to −154 m at ~23 ka. Afterward, the lake receded sharply to −200 m at ~22.5 ka, consistent with dry conditions of H2. During LGM, Lake Lisan recovered to −160 m at ~19 ka, which implies a return to a positive water balance. Correspondence of Lisan regressions to MIS 4 and 2, and to Heinrich events of the North Atlantic 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2 indicates a dry climate of the Levant during these periods. Otherwise, the highest lake stands during MIS 5a and the sharp transgression of the lake during MIS 3 suggest wet climate of the Eastern Mediterranean during aforementioned periods.

Linum usitatissimum L., known as flax, is one of the oldest crops of the Fertile Crescent. Yet, the investigations into the cultivation of this plant has still not been comprehensively examined, as the archaeobotanical data have never been investigated in detail. The developments of flax cultivation are reflected in the archaeobotanical dataset namely the linseed finds. This paper presents for the first time a complete compilation of published linseed finds from southern Levantine Bronze and Iron Age sites. The comparative investigation shows that the cultivation of flax underwent fluctuations between the mid-4th to mid-1st millennium BC. The presented archaeobotanical material shows a decline in linseed finds from the Early Bronze to the Middle Bronze Age and an increase of archaeobotanical flax finds in the Iron Age. The supposed reduction of flax cultivation during the Middle and Late Bronze Age could have been caused by multiple factors (including environmental). Moreover, the analysis of the archaeobotanical record shows that the Jordan Valley and the area around Beth Shean as well as the Dead Sea played a prominent role in the cultivation of Linum usitatissimum L. throughout time.

The penetration of the uniquely strong Mediterranean Sea Breeze (MSB) into the Dead Sea (DS) valley has been studied for decades. However, the studies relied mostly on surface observations and coarse-model simulations. Motivated by the significant interdaily variability, we investigate two typical but different events: a frequent event in which the surface specific humidity (SH) steeply decreases and surface temperature increases during MSB penetration by ~40% and 1.2 °C, respectively; and a less frequent event, with almost the opposite behavior, an increase of surface SH by ~20%. Decrease in the integrated water vapor (IWV) content at MSB arrival is significantly larger in the first event. To reveal the factors responsible for these different behaviors we use high-resolution in–situ and remote-sensing observations, together with WRF simulations. It was found that foehn developed following the MSB descent down to the DS valley and the weakening of opposing upward winds. The foehn characteristics were influenced by the synoptic and mesoscale conditions. While on the first event the foehn reached the surface of the valley, on the second it did not. This led to the different behavior of the surface temperature and SH. An additional factor was the amount of moisture brought by the DS breeze and MSB. Different altitudes of stable layers led to the different changes of the IWV. Our simulations suggest the feasibility of forecasting foehn and sudden changes in surface variables in the DS valley 24 h in advance. These forecasts can be most valuable during high pollution events.

Extreme value predictions of the roll motion of ships are considered within the framework of the First Order Reliability Method focusing on the applicability of the Poisson assumption for the peak value statistics. The examples considered are a ship rolling in dead sea condition under the combined action of waves and wind and a ship experiences parametric rolling.

Numerical simulations emulating the formation of the Dead Sea Basin (DSB) infer that it could not have been formed as a pull-apart basin with a surface heat flow lower than 50 m W m 2 . However, previous measurements determined values of 32 − 40 m W m 2 . This contradiction is known as the “Dead Sea heat flow paradox”. Here we set to re-examine the “paradox” by analyzing heat flow data in boreholes drilled by the ICDP (International Continental Drilling Program) in the northern DSB. The boreholes and the extracted sediment cores offer a unique opportunity to re-measure the heat flow in the DSB and assess the “paradox”. Heat flow was determined by obtaining in situ temperature profiles from the boreholes and conducting 469 thermal conductivity measurements on the cores. The newly computed values are in agreement with those previously obtained for the DSB and fall below the threshold of 50 m W m 2 . Different explanations proposed to justify higher heat flow seem to fail leaving the “Dead Sea heat flow paradox” unresolved. Heat flow values and the sedimentation corrections determined in this research are consistent with the Ginzburg and Ben-Avraham subsurface model for the DSB, suggesting deeper sediment filling in the southern part of the basin.

It seems the highly saline conditions of the Dead Sea (DS) coast line are not favorable for the use of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) method for detection of underground caverns before sinkhole formation (short-time prediction). The location of the formed caverns within the salt layer (significantly more than the penetration depth of the electromagnetic waves) combined with the saline DS brine (groundwater) covering the salt layer from above, characterized by low electrical resistivity, makes the application of electromagnetic waves (EW) impossible. However, our experience has shown that GPR technique in its 2D and 3D modifications can be a very efficient tool to predict sinkhole susceptibility. Case histories of GPR studies in the Mineral Beach and Nahal David sites are presented. The GPR study has shown that the method is effective in both urban sites and at most of sites of human activities of the Dead Sea coast (dwellings, routes, agricultural areas etc.), but it fails in areas composed of saline mud in the subsurface (some areas lower than −400 m elevation). The fan areas are composed of sandy-gravel sediments and the penetrating depth of the electromagnetic waves varies but is usually limited to the first meters up to 8–10 m (maximum to 13–15 m), but in any case not deeper than the water table (depending on the dielectric constant, which as a rule is 4–25). In areas covered by Dead Sea mud, penetration depth is limited to the first meter due to the low electrical resistivity of the sediments. Models of sinkhole formation and principles of cavity detection in the DS area are discussed to understand the fundamentals of GPR use for the prediction of sinkhole susceptibility.

Mass mortality of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius and consequent economic losses occur in the aquaculture industry due to the outbreak of black mouth disease. Decreasing the physical contact between the healthy and diseased sea urchins is proposed to be an effective approach to preventing the disease transmission. Laboratory experiments were designed to investigate whether different levels of segregations can effectively prevent the disease transmission. The present study found that the number of diseased sea urchins in the segregations with two layers of PVC net (group T) was significantly lower than that without segregations (group E) on the first day. Further, there were no significant difference in the number of diseased sea urchins between the group T and the group with healthy sea urchins (group N) on the first day. These results indicate that the segregation with two layers of PVC net, which completely eliminates the physical contact between healthy and diseased sea urchin, is an effective approach to preventing the transmission of black mouth disease of S. intermedius. However, the number of diseased sea urchins in the group T showed no significant advantage on the third and seventh day. This indicates that the effectiveness of the complete segregation for disease transmission is greatly reduced if the diseased/dead sea urchins are not removed in time. Further, no significant difference was found in the number of diseased sea urchins in the group T on the first day after the air exposure, indicating that the complete segregation is not effective to prevent the disease transmission after air exposure. Surprisingly, the morbidities of groups in the experiment 2 on the seventh day (62.5 ± 3.2%) was significantly lower than that of groups in the experiment 3 on the fifth day (95.8 ± 1.4%). This clearly indicates that air exposure deteriorates the transmission of the black mouth disease. Collectively, the present study suggests that complete segregation, which eliminates the physical contact between healthy and diseased sea urchin, is an effective approach to preventing the transmission of the black mouth disease, provided that diseased/dead sea urchins are removed in time and air exposure is avoided. In addition, the present study indicates that the physical contact between healthy and diseased sea urchins is important route of the disease transmission, although other routes of pathogenic bacteria transmission are not exclusive.

Historical and archaeological monuments are widespread throughout Israel and many of them are deteriorating but still draw numerous visitors. Since damaging earthquakes are inevitable, there is an urgent need to retrofit these monuments, yet budgets are limited. The Israeli Antiquity Authority (IAA) has identified the most valuable monuments and asked the Geological Survey to conduct an earthquake hazard evaluation and rank those by level of hazard. Accordingly, we have developed the following systematic, qualitative method to assess the hazards. First, we established scales that describe the level of hazard in any given site for each of the earthquake induced effects: surface rupture, ground shaking and amplification of ground motion, slope failure, liquefaction and tsunami. We then assessed the degree of hazard at each of the monuments’ sites, but realized that the outcomes did not accord with the historical experience. Consequently, we introduced importance weighting to the earthquake effects, as each of them has a different damage potential. We also applied a correction factor to compensate for the different frequencies of damaging earthquakes across the country, as indicated by the historical experience. The final assessment and ranking showed that monuments along the Dead Sea Transform and Rift Valley were exposed to the highest level of hazard. High levels also appeared in places along the Mediterranean coast. The outcomes were delivered to the IAA, which concurrently evaluated the vulnerability of the listed monuments, and will determine the risk facing these monuments and prioritize anti-seismic retrofitting accordingly.

Balneotherapy is the treatment of disease by bathing in thermal spring water. This therapy has been used for centuries and remains a popular form of treatment for dermatologic and rheumatologic diseases today. Although the favorable climates of balneotherapy thermal centers have known beneficial effects on psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, the thermal spring waters themselves can also potentially decrease skin inflammation. The addition of phototherapy to balneotherapy, or balneophototherapy, further enhances the anti-inflammatory effects of thermal spring water. We have reviewed the literature on balneotherapy in the treatment of skin diseases, as well as describing their use in three different treatment sites, each with unique climates and chemical properties of the mineral water used in balneotherapy-the Dead Sea in Israel and Jordan, the La Roche-Posay Thermal Center in France, and the Blue Lagoon in Iceland.

Piggyback or foreland-propagating thrust sequences, where younger thrusts develop in the footwalls of existing thrusts, are generally assumed to be the typical order of thrust development in most orogenic settings. However, overstep or ‘break-back’ sequences, where later thrusts develop above and in the hangingwalls of earlier thrusts, may potentially form during cessation of movement in gravity-driven mass transport deposits (MTDs). In this study, we provide a detailed outcrop-based analysis of such an overstep thrust sequence developed in an MTD in the southern Dead Sea Basin. Evidence that may be used to discriminate overstep thrusting from piggyback thrust sequences within the gravity-driven fold and thrust belt includes upright folds and forethrusts that are cut by younger overlying thrusts. Backthrusts form ideal markers that are also clearly offset and cut by overlying younger forethrusts. Portions of the basal detachment to the thrust system are folded and locally imbricated in footwall synclines below forethrust ramps, and these geometries also support an overstep sequence. However, new ‘short-cut’ basal detachments develop below these synclines, indicating that movement continued on the basal detachment rather than it being abandoned as in classic overstep sequences. Further evidence for ‘synchronous thrusting’, where movement on more than one thrust occurs at the same time, is provided by displacement patterns on sequences of thrust ramp imbricates that systematically increases downslope towards the toe of the MTD. Older thrusts that initiate downslope in the broadly overstep sequence continue to move and therefore accrue greater displacements during synchronous thrusting. Our study provides a template to help distinguish different thrust sequences in both orogenic settings and gravity-driven surficial systems, with displacement patterns potentially being imaged in seismic sections across offshore MTDs.

The history of dust transport to the Levant during the last glacial period is reconstructed using the isotope ratios of Pb, Sr, Nd, and Hf in sediments of Lake Lisan, the last glacial Dead Sea. Exposed marginal sections of the Lisan Formation were sampled near Masada, the Perazim Valley and from a core drilled at the deep floor of the modern lake. Bulk samples and size fractions display unique isotopic fingerprints: the finest detritus fraction ( The 87Sr/86Sr and eNd values of the finest fraction correspond with those of atmospheric dust originating from the Sahara Desert, while those of the coarse fractions are similar to loess deposits exposed in the Sinai and Negev Deserts. Pronounced excursions in the Sr-Nd-Pb isotope ratios toward more Sahara-like values coincide with the Heinrich (H) stadials 6, 5 and 1, reflecting significant increases in Saharan dust fluxes during regionally arid intervals, reflected by sharp lake level drops. Moreover, during H6 the dust came from different Saharan sources than during H1 and H5. While the relatively wet glacial climate in the Levant suppressed the transport of dust to the lake watershed, short-term hyper-arid spells during H-stadial intervals were accompanied by enhanced supply of fine Sahara dust to this region.

The Dead Sea is a unique natural and tourist site that attracts many tourists. In recent decades, the Dead Sea water level is suffering from a significant decrease, resulting in the dehydration of the southwestern basin. This study focuses on the economic benefits arising from the continued existence of the southwestern basin as an important and unique tourism center. The economic benefits were estimated by methods for estimating market benefits of tourism based on market-data, as well as by the Travel Cost Method and the Contingent Valuation Method. The results suggest that there are clear economic benefits to the preservation of the southwestern basin, and while the market benefits constitute the major part of the estimated benefits, the non-market benefits show that the Israeli public assigns the southwestern basin a significant economic value. The results may assist in making informed policy decisions regarding the continued existence of the southwestern basin.

The geometry of stepovers along strike-slip faults dictates the deformational field and topography induced around the faults. Stepover geometry also impacts the ability of a fault rupture to propagate from one fault segment to another and therefore acts as a major controlling factor in the size of earthquakes. However, the geometry of stepovers is often poorly resolved, as they tend to underlie young sedimentary successions. Yet, although mostly ignored, the accumulated long-term relative plate motions accommodated by the stepping faults generate permanent rotational deformation in the crust surrounding them. Here we present the results from a combined mechanical and paleomagnetic investigation of the vertical axis rotational pattern confining stepovers. We focus our investigation on the central Dead Sea Fault, where two prominent stepovers are located at the Kinneret and Hula depressions. To better understand their still somewhat elusive geometric settings, we mapped the crustal rotational field by studying the magnetization of the confining volcanic rocks. Remanent magnetization directions reveal localized zones of anomalously high vertical axis rotations in the vicinity of the stepovers that evolve to negligible rotations elsewhere. We then constructed a series of elastic and elasto-plastic slip models aiming to cover possible plate boundary architectures. Comparable patterns between the observed and predicted rotations were achieved when the Dead Sea Fault motion was concentrated along the eastern margins of both the Kinneret and Hula Basins. Our best-fit model suggests that the along-strike under-lapping distance for the Kinneret Stepover is ~8 km whereas for the Hula Stepover is only ~2 km. Our results, supported by historic and paleoseismic records that show no evidence of an earthquake that ruptured through the Kinneret Stepover, imply an enhanced deformation zone in the center of Lake Kinneret, which acts as a major barrier to rupture propagation. Our combined paleomagnetic and modeling analysis approach provides a new avenue for the study of the geometries of plate boundaries.

Partial migration occurs when a population of animals contains both migratory and resident individuals. Following anthropogenic changes, the population of Dead Sea Sparrows (Passer moabiticus) in Israel, experienced a rapid expansion of its breeding range, from the Dead Sea northward along the Great Rift Valley. Appropriate climatic conditions, increased water availability and suitable trees to construct their nests enabled the Dead Sea Sparrows to breed in new areas. However, during non-breeding seasons, the climatic conditions and food availability is less suitable in some of these new areas. Dead Sea Sparrows colony, in an oasis in the Judean desert near the Dead Sea, was found to be mainly sedentary. However, recapture data, collected from numerous ringing projects along the Great Rift Valley, showed patterns of partial migration of northern populations. These include a unique altitudinal migration from above to below sea level. Female and juvenile Dead Sea Sparrows from northern populations migrate in autumn further south and in greater numbers than males and adults. This study sheds light on how the expansion of a passerine breeding range, due to anthropogenic activities, leads to the emergence of a variety of partial migration patterns.

The Dead Sea scrolls (DSS) are the most important archaeological find in Israel. Relatively well preserved in caves for 2000 years, additional damage has occurred since their removal in the 1950s. Among other issues, thousands of fragments were stored between glass plates, and over the years white “halos” formed around some of these fragments. Different theories about these “halos” have been proposed: the first, most obvious, option being salt migration. Since the salt content everywhere in the Dead Sea area (including aerosols) is extremely high, all of the scroll fragments would have collected large amounts of salt. Another theory, that the halos could be gelatin recrystallizing after being squeezed out of the degraded parchment, was more worrisome. If gelatin was squeezed out of the parchment, it would result directly in significant changes to the scrolls’ physical properties. At the request of the Israel Antiquities Authority's (IAA) DSS conservation staff, we analyzed the powdery material with multiple methods: FTIR-ATR, Raman microscopy, XRD, ICP, and GC/MS. In addition to salt and minerals, our analysis found fatty acids (FA), but no gelatin, disproving that particular theory. By artificially aging modern parchment the phenomenon was recreated and the parchment samples were analyzed with destructive methods (electron microprobe, GC/MS) that could not be applied to the DSS in order to learn more about the process. The FAs are an important discovery not only for understanding the degradation process, but also as a source of information on the scrolls’ production and treatment history – a source that can be analyzed even more accurately through destructive methods, without needing to touch the scrolls themselves.

The extreme rate of evaporation of the Dead Sea (DS) has serious implications for the surrounding area, including atmospheric conditions. This study analyzes the aerosol properties over the western and eastern parts of the DS during the year 2013, using MAIAC (Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction) for MODIS, which retrieves aerosol optical depth (AOD) data at a resolution of 1 km. The main goal of the study is to evaluate MAIAC over the study area and determine, for the first time, the prevailing aerosol spatial patterns. First, the MAIAC-derived AOD data was compared with data from three nearby AERONET sites (Nes Ziona - an urban site, and Sede Boker and Masada - two arid sites), and with the conventional Dark Target (DT) and Deep Blue (DB) retrievals for the same days and locations, on a monthly basis throughout 2013. For the urban site, the correlation coefficient (r) for DT/DB products showed better performance than MAIAC (r = 0.80, 0.75, and 0.64 respectively) year-round. However, in the arid zones, MAIAC showed better correspondence to AERONET sites than the conventional retrievals (r = 0.58–0.60 and 0.48–0.50 respectively). We investigated the difference in AOD levels, and its variability, between the Dead Sea coasts on a seasonal basis and calculated monthly/seasonal AOD averages for presenting AOD patterns over arid zones. Thus, we demonstrated that aerosol concentrations show a strong preference for the western coast, particularly during the summer season. This preference, is most likely a result of local anthropogenic emissions combined with the typical seasonal synoptic conditions, the Mediterranean Sea breeze, and the region complex topography. Our results also indicate that a large industrial zone showed higher AOD levels compared to an adjacent reference-site, i.e., 13% during the winter season.

Solutions of different chemical compositions will precipitate gypsum crystals with different morphology. The dependence of gypsum morphology on the chemical composition can therefore be a tool for interpreting the paleo-chemistry and environments of solutions from which gypsum in the geological record precipitated. In addition, the morphology of the gypsum that will precipitate in the Dead Sea once the Red Sea-Dead Sea conduit is built will determine if the crystals will remain in suspension in the surface brine, thereby leading to “whitening” of the lake. Despite its importance, little is known about the impact of the different parameters on the morphology of gypsum precipitated from natural brines. In the present study we conducted single point batch experiments with mixtures of Dead Sea - Red Sea brines and utilized image processing techniques to study the morphology of the gypsum that precipitated from different solution compositions at different degrees of oversaturation. The results from the first data set towards the understanding of what controls the morphology of gypsum while providing a preliminary tool for the forecast of the future of the Dead Sea are presented here.

The Late Permian–Early Triassic sedimentary succession in the eastern Dead Sea Region of Jordan was surveyed for conchostracans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda). Whereas their occurrence in the Middle–Late Permian Umm Irna Formation could not be confirmed, the overlying Ma'in Formation contained a fauna comprising Rossolimnadiopsis Novozhilov and other, thus far, taxonomically undetermined conchostracans. Here, a new species, Rossolimnadiopsis hanskerpi nov. sp., is described and figured. It shows a very distinctive concavely curved dorsal margin and an elevated, outwardly curved semi-circular flange. Rossolimnadiopsis hanskerpi nov. sp. occurs in dark gray, laminated, lacustrine, siltstones of the Ma'in Formation (Nimra Member), which is considered to be of Early Triassic age. Based on literature data, Rossolimnadiopsis was previously recorded only from two localities in the Moscow syncline in Central Russia. In addition to Jordan, the genus has been identified in India and possibly in Germany. All these occurrences seem to be restricted to a narrow stratigraphic interval ranging from the Late Permian to the Early Triassic.

Israel was hit by destructive earthquakes many times in the course of history. To properly understand the hazard and support effective preparedness towards future earthquakes, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of the resulted damage. We described in detail our systematic approach to searching the available literature, collecting the data and screening the authenticity of that information. We used GIS (Geographic Information System) to map and evaluate the distribution of the damage and to search for recurring patterns. Overall, it is found that 186 localities were hit, 54 of them at least twice. We also found that Israel was affected by 4, 17, 8 and 2 damaging earthquakes that originated, respectively, from the southern, central, central-northern and northern parts of the Dead Sea Transform (DST). The temporal appearance of the northern earthquakes is clustered; the central earthquakes are more regular in time, whereas no damage from the north-central and the central quakes, with the exception of the year 363 earthquake, seems to have occurred south of the Dead Sea region. Analyzing the distribution of the damage, we realized that the number of the damage reports reflects only half of the incidents that actually happened, attesting to incompleteness of the historical catalogue. Jerusalem is the most reported city with 14 entries, followed by Akko (Acre), Tiberias, Nablus and Tyre with 8, 7, 7 and 6 reports, respectively. In general, localities in the Galilee and north of it suffered more severely than localities in central Israel with the exception of Nablus and the localities along the coastal plain of Israel, most probably due to local site effects. For the sake of hazard management, these observations should be considered for future planning and risk mitigation.

A combined GPS velocity solution covering a wide area from Egypt to Middle East allowed us to infer the current rates across the main, already well known, tectonic features. We have estimated 126 velocities from time series of 90 permanent and 36 non permanent GPS sites located in Africa (Egypt), Eurasia and Arabia plates in the time span 1996–2015, the largest available for the Egyptian sites. We have combined our velocity solution in a least-squares sense with two other recent velocity solutions of networks located around the eastern Mediterranean, obtaining a final IGb08 velocity field of about 450 sites. Then, we have estimated the IGb08 Euler poles of Africa, Sinai and Arabia, analyzing the kinematics of the Sinai area, particular velocity profiles, and estimating the 2D strain rate field. We show that it is possible to reliably model the rigid motion of Sinai block only including some GPS sites located south of the Carmel Fault. The estimated relative motion with respect to Africa is of the order of 2–3 mm/yr, however there is a clear mismatch between the modeled and the observed velocities in the southern Sinai sites. We have also assessed the NNE left shear motion along the Dead Sea Transform Fault, estimating a relative motion between Arabia and Africa of about 6 mm/yr in the direction of the Red Sea opening.

The Dead Sea Scrolls are often described as the most important archaeological find of the 20th century. These 2000 years old manuscripts have great religious, historical and linguistic importance. The fact that large parts of these texts are obscured by the darkening of the parchment is extremely unfortunate. In our previous research we explored the possible causes of parchment browning or darkening using artificial aging, which allowed both destructive and non-destructive testing. Our results could be summarized as two main theories, one related to parchment fibers flattening and changing the way light is reflected, the second related to the formation of strong brown pigments, likely from the melanoidin family. Here we examine the scrolls themselves and discuss their degradation in light of these theories. The main DSS collection could only be surveyed by completely non-destructive means, namely multispectral imaging and Diffuse Reflected Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT); however, a few fragments were examined by micro-destructive means including SEM and FTIR-ATR and EPR. Despite the great variation between scrolls, we demonstrate that the browning of the scrolls and their degradation fits within the framework of those theories developed on artificially aged samples. We suggest the extreme degradation occurred when parchment was exposed to water and particularly if that water was slow to evaporate, for example saturated salt water which is slow to evaporate, and was very likely present in the caves where the scrolls were found by the Dead Sea. Hydrolysis and denaturation freed the necessary components to meet and initiate the formation of large melanoidins.

Mottled Zones (MZ) in south Levant regions show discrete, varied-dimensional rock complex exposures and many unexplored areas in the vicinity of the Dead Sea Transform Fault (DSF). The research area, located south of the Daba–Siwaqa Mottled Zone complex in Jordan, was surveyed using the very low-frequency electromagnetic method (VLF-EM) for the purpose of resolving the geoelectrical setting of MZ rocks, the associated structural features, and the underlying sedimentary layers. The VLF-EM tipper data acquired along five profiles was analyzed using Fraser, Karous-Hjelt, and apparent resistivity linear filters. The quantitative interpretation was conducted using a 2D inversion of the VLF-EM tipper data, and a proposed synthetic model was tested and analyzed at MZ exposure. The majority of MZ rocks are likely to be located in a region of negative Fraser values (≥ −10.0%) and negative Karous-Hjelt values (≥ −8.0%). The apparent resistivity map exhibits MZ rocks at high values (1000–2500 Ω·m). The derived resistivity models recovered from the 2D inversion of the VLF-EM data showed a relatively resistive MZ rock body immersed in relatively less resistive (conductive) sedimentary layers composed of clayey marl and marl. The known and inferred locations of MZ rocks derived from the 2D resistivity section are compatible with the locations proposed by the filtering techniques. Furthermore, the 2D resistivity sections showed a stressed underlying sequence of sedimentary rocks demonstrating sub-vertical contacts and possible displacement along fault planes. A synthetic 2D resistivity model revealed a wedge-shaped formation of 38.0 m thick MZ rocks that can be resolved from the underlying sedimentary layers.

Fold duplexes transfer displacement from a lower to an upper bounding detachment system via trains of folds with broadly parallel geometries. While they have been previously recognised in orogenic systems where they are considered to be kinematically equivalent to imbricating thrust ramps, we here describe the first example from a gravity-driven fold and thrust system (FATS) developed within late-Pleistocene mass transport deposits (MTDs) that formed around the Dead Sea Basin. The recognition in this study of basal and upper detachments that bound the FATS, together with later thrust ramps that imbricate the previously folded sequence, indicates that a fold duplex model is applicable in this case. Truncation of synclinal hinges, together with trapping of duplex roof stratigraphy in synclinal fold cores indicates that initiation of buckling precedes detachments, which then propagated along the upper and lower boundaries of the FATS to create a fold duplex. Downslope-verging folds, which are bound by the detachments, are subsequently cut by thrust ramps with greatest displacement recorded where ramps branch from the basal detachment. As thrust displacement increases then ramp angles generally reduce, which allows thrusts to continue to move and accrue larger displacements. Sequential flattening of lower thrusts in overstep sequences may create apparent ‘back-steepening’ up the slope in what superficially resembles ‘pseudo-piggyback’ sequences. Flattening of thrusts is achieved through tightening, rotation and expulsion of wet sediment and fluid from the cores of footwall synclines and is a consequence of loading from overlying thrust sheets. We speculate that expelled fluids may pond directly beneath overlying detrital-rich units that act as baffles and locally increase fluid pressures thereby facilitating further movement along the upper detachment. We establish a new model, whereby the vergence of structures formed above the upper detachment depends on the relative rates of roof and FATS translation, with slower downslope translation of the roof generating upslope verging folds in a ‘sub-active’ roof, while more rapid movement of a ‘super-active’ roof creates downslope verging folds. The observation that such patterns of minor fold vergence in the roof still largely correspond with the position of folds and thrusts in the underlying FATS indicates that only limited relative translation subsequently occurred between the roof and the FATS. This suggests that displacement must have transferred upwards to new upper detachments shortly after the folds in the roof were created, thereby ‘fixing’ the spatial correlation. As older detachments are folded and ‘lock up’, displacement migrates to new upper detachments that develop along pristine ‘easy-slip’ laminations at higher stratigraphic levels, thereby thickening the deforming FATS towards the sediment free surface. The creation of these new upper detachments at higher stratigraphic levels, together with the development of local overstep imbricate sequences are the principal differences between fold duplexes observed in orogenic settings and those in surficial gravity-driven FATS.

The area of the Dead Sea, a terminal lake on the border between Israel and Jordan, has gone through extensive environmental changes in recent decades, stemming from several processes including extreme evaporation and land degradation. Our study explored the distribution and the long-term high-resolution climatology of the Dead Sea aerosols, using satellite-retrieved Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD) measurements. We used the Multi-Angle Implementation of Atmospheric Correction (MAIAC) algorithm that provides AOD measurements at a 1 km resolution. MAIAC retrievals for the entire study period (2000–2016) have shown a very good agreement (r = 0.8) with the nearby AERONET station. For the first time, the AOD temporal distribution and its variability, on both Dead Sea coasts, were calculated on a monthly/seasonal basis. Three main aerosol pollution patterns (i.e. high-levels of AOD) emerged as follows: western focalized (75 and 59% of the months examined for Aqua and Terra, respectively), eastern focalized (14 and 24%), and similar levels of pollution on both coasts (11 and 17%, respectively). Using the Normalized AOD Difference (NAODD) metric, we studied how the AOD spatial patterns changed and when. Following the negative trends in most of the months, our analysis has demonstrated a shift towards unexplained increasing pollution levels over the Jordanian eastern side. For March–April, this shift had already occurred, and the potential reasons including changes in synoptic regimes are discussed. Local and global implications are of much regional interest because of the Dead Sea deterioration and the need for urgent environmental policy changes.

New multidisciplinary research based on geomorphological investigation and soil survey conducted at the slopes of Masada fort enabled us to reevaluate and question the dramatic events that took place there, in 73/74 CE, according to the 1st century CE Jewish historian, Flavius Josephus. The fort, built on a high elevated and isolated rocky block facing the Dead Sea in Israel, is now on the UNESCO list of World Heritage sites. Here, according to Josephus, a group of Jewish rebels occupying Masada chose to kill each other and die as free people rather than go into captivity. This act took place after the rebels realized that the Roman army, laying a complex assault ramp against the fort of Masada, were breaching its walls. The archaeological finds unearthed at Masada, revealing the daily life of the Jewish rebels and the well-preserved remains of the Roman siege apparatus, seem at face value to complement Josephus' description. However, our new geomorphological and soil examination of the assault ramp and the natural terrain in its vicinity enable us to clearly separate between the man-made construction and the natural slope environments, and draw a clear boundary between the two. In addition, we conclude that since their formation, they were not subjected to later modification by processes such as natural erosion, slope sliding, or anthropogenic interruptions. As the Roman assault ramp was found to be an uncompleted structure, we conclude that the final scenario of the siege could not have happened as Josephus described it. This meticulous new research confirms our earlier hypothesis that the assault ramp was never completed and therefore could not have been operational. Such a conclusion challenges the common understanding of how the Roman siege of Masada ended.

Archaeological waterlogged wood objects exposed on the Dead Sea shore exhibit little visual evidence of degradation when first exposed, and after prolonged exposure and dehydration. An investigation on the state of preservation of this material was recognised as a necessary step towards its long-term conservation. Micromorphological observations, ATR FTIR, ash content, and physical tests showed that deterioration is limited and is mostly non-biological in nature. Natural bulking and impregnation with lake minerals and salts appear to play a significant role in the physical stability of these woods when dried, and apparently inhibit microbial colonization and subsequent degradation. In contrast, archaeological wood examined from a typical Mediterranean marine environment showed advanced stages of degradation by bacteria, with the wood structure extensively compromised.

Archaeological studies suggest that the lime industry originated in the Near East during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB; 10,500–8400 cal BP). This paper describes an attempt to define a more confined area where this pivotal event could have taken place, by searching for areas where lime technology is likely to have been best known during the preceding Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA; 11,600–10,500 cal BP) period. The assessment has been undertaken by comparing the conditions for discovering lime burning in different parts of the Southern Levant during the PPNA. Lime burning is the first step in the lime production process. The assessment has been supported by two test-burning experiments by the Dead Sea. The investigations conclude that lime technology was best known in the Jordan Valley and by the Dead Sea, which is consistent with the distribution of Neolithic lime finds to date.

This study aims to assess the effect of sustainability practices on financial leakages in the hotel industry in Jordan. A self-administered survey was distributed to hotel managers in all 213 classified hotels in Amman, Aqaba, Petra, and the Dead Sea area. Of these, 163 questionnaires were returned with a response rate of 76.5%. Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling were used to test research hypotheses. Despite that many studies have predicted sustainability practices to have a negative effect on financial leakages, the results of this study indicated that sustainability practices didn't reduce the financial leakage level in Jordanian hotels. However, financial leakages are predicted to be reduced through sustainability practices over time. These results could help hotels to develop financial and conservation strategies benefiting their local economies, resources, and cultures. Future research may extend this work to other tourism businesses.

Lacustrine laminated sediments are often varves representing annual rhythmic deposition. The Dead Sea high-stand laminated sections consist of mm-scale alternating detrital and authigenic aragonite laminae. Previous studies assumed these laminae were varves deposited seasonally. However, this assumption has never been robustly validated. Here we report an examination of the seasonal deposition of detrital-aragonite couplets from two well-known Late Holocene laminated sections at the Ze’elim fan-delta using palynology and grain-size distribution analyses. These analyses are complemented by the study of contemporary flash-flood samples and multivariate statistical analysis. Because transport affects the pollen preservation state, well–preserved (mostly) air-borne transported pollen was analysed separately from badly-preserved pollen and fungal spores, which are more indicative of water transport and reworking from soils. Our results indicate that (i) both detrital and aragonite laminae were deposited during the rainy season; (ii) aragonite laminae have significantly lower reworked and fungal spore concentrations than detrital and flash-flood samples; and (iii) detrital laminae are composed of recycling of local and distal sources, with coarser particles that were initially deposited in the Dead Sea watershed and later transported via run-off to the lake. This is in line with previous carbon balance studies that showed that aragonite precipitation occurs after the massive input of TCO2 associated with run-off episodes. Consequently, at least for the Holocene Ze’elim Formation, laminated sediments cannot be considered as varves. Older Quaternary laminated sequences should be re-evaluated.

Optogenetics as a field cuts cleanly across traditional disciplinary boundaries. Ecology and genetics provide a source of proteins; advanced spectroscopy and structural biology elucidate molecular mechanisms; molecular biology and biochemistry are used to engineer proteins; sophisticated instrumentation delivers light. An understanding of cell biology or neuroscience is needed to develop reasonable biological questions, and rigorous computation is essential to process the torrents of data that often result. The development of optically instrumented life forms promises to continue for the decades ahead.Optogenetics also illustrates the difficulty in predicting where basic science will lead. The Optopatch constructs combine genes from an archaeon from the Dead Sea, an alga from England, an FP from a coral, an FP from a jellyfish, and a peptide from a pig virus. The discoverers of these individual genes likely never suspected that they would be combined one day and used in human neurons to study a cell-based model of neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Summary The relationship between the density, temperature and viscosity of hypersaline solutions, both natural and synthetic, is explored. An empirical equation of the density–viscosity relationship as a function of temperature was developed for the Dead Sea brine and its dilutions. The viscosity levels of the Dead Sea brine (density of 1.24 ⋅ 103 kg/m3; viscosity of 3.6 mPa s at 20 °C) and of the more extremely saline natural brine (density of 1.37 ⋅ 103 kg/m3) were found to be ∼3 and ∼10 times greater than that of fresh water, respectively. The combined effect of the above changes in viscosity and density on the hydraulic conductivity is reduction by a factor of 3–7. The chemical composition significantly affects the viscosity of brines with similar densities, whereby solutions with a higher Mg/Na ratio have higher viscosity. This explains the extremely high viscosity of the Dead Sea and related Mg-rich brines in comparison with the much lower values of NaCl and KCl brines with similar density. Possible impacts of the results include reduced settling velocity of grains in hypersaline viscous brines and changing hydraulic dynamics at the freshwater–saltwater and the vicinity of sinkholes.

Four Dicroidium species and associated fertile organs are here described from the late Permian Umm Irna Formation (Dead Sea Region, Jordan). Dicroidium irnense, D. jordanense and D. robustum, which were so far only known from the Wadi Himara locality, are now reported from several other sites, some yielding nearly complete fronds and excellently preserved cuticles; D. hughesii, a species so far only known from the Triassic, is here reported from the upper Permian. The largest species, D. robustum emend. nov., can be correlated with the pollen organ Pteruchus lepidus sp. nov. and the cupulate structure Umkomasia aequatorialis sp. nov. based on repeated co-occurrences and striking similarities in cuticular features. Dicroidium irnense is associated with Pteruchus frenguellii sp. nov. based on consistent co-occurrence. Dispersed Umkomasia seeds are common in all localities where Dicroidium occurs. The here described material comprises some of the most completely reconstructed species of Umkomasiaceae known to date. All Dicroidium plants are characterized by comparatively large fronds and both Pteruchus species have strongly elongate, strap-shaped microsporophylls, similar to Triassic Umkomasiaceae growing under comparable, seasonally dry conditions. Dicroidium first appeared during the late Permian in the paleotropical regions, survived the end-Permian biotic crisis, colonized large parts of Gondwana during the Triassic, and persisted in southern high-latitude refugia into the Jurassic. Umkomasiaceae thus show a remarkable resilience as the group survived two of the most severe mass extinctions in Earth history.

Gravity-driven mass transport deposits (MTDs) form by the downslope-directed movement of sediment associated with slope failure. Simple models suggest that extension forms at the upslope (head) area, contraction is focussed in the downslope toe of the slump, while differential shear associated with strike-slip is restricted to the lateral margins of the slump. Although the head and toe are considered to be dominated by layer-parallel shear (LPS), differential layer-normal shear (LNS) may be generated around the lateral margins of slumps and potentially also within MTDs where flow has been separated into different ‘lobes’. Despite this realisation that LNS must form, there has been little work into the geometries and spatial relationships of resulting structures. Using the late Pleistocene Lisan Formation exposed around the Dead Sea Basin as our case study, we examine detailed (

The paper under discussion, ignores a published, very large new data set (Charrach, 2018a, b), which is multi-disciplinary and integrates the most recent research. The detailed study of the geology of Mt. Sedom raises many questions regarding the interpretation and models presented in the paper. The analysis of the new data set from Mt. Sedom, gathered from measured evidence, with an analysis of the hydro-geochemistry of the Dead Sea Basin regarding the different sources of sulphate ions could considerably improve their paper.

Recording and analyzing how climate change impacts flood recurrence, basin erosion, and sedimentation can improve our understanding of these systems. The aragonite-detritus laminae couplets comprising the lacustrine formations that were deposited in the Dead Sea Basin are considered as faithful monitors of the freshwater supply to the lakes. We count a total of ~5600 laminae couplets deposited in the last 45 kyr (MIS3-MIS1) at the Dead Sea depocenter, which encompass the upper 141.6 m of the ICDP Core 5017-1. The present study shows that aragonite and detritus laminae are thinner and occur at high frequency during MIS 3-2, while they are much thicker and less frequent during MIS 1. By analyzing multiple climate-connected factors, we propose that significant lake-level drops, enhanced dust input, and low vegetative cover in the drainage basin during the last deglaciation (22-11.6 ka) have considerably increased erodible materials in the Dead Sea watershed. We find a decoupling existed between the significant lake-level drop/lake size reduction and lamina thickness change during the last deglaciation. We argue that during the last glacial and the Holocene, the variation of lamina thickness at the multiple-millennium scale was not controlled directly by the lake-level/size change. We interpret this decoupling implying the transport capacity of flash-floods is low and might be saturated by the oversupply of erodible materials, and indicating a transport-limited regime during the time period. We suggest that the observed thickness and frequency distribution of aragonite-detritus laminae points to the high frequency of small-magnitude floods during the last glacial period, in contrast to low frequency, but large-magnitude floods during the Holocene.

The Dead Sea Fault is a major strike-slip fault bounding the Arabia plate and the Sinai subplate. On the basis of three GPS campaign measurements, 12 years apart, at 19 sites distributed in Israel and Jordan, complemented by Israeli permanent stations, we compute the present-day deformation across the Wadi Arava fault, the southern segment of the Dead Sea Fault. Elastic locked-fault modelling of fault-parallel velocities provides a slip rate of 4.7 ± 0.7 mm/yr and a locking depth of 11.6 ± 5.3 km in its central part. Along its northern part, south of the Dead Sea, the simple model proposed for the central profile does not fit the velocity field well. To fit the data, two faults have to be taken into account, on both sides of the sedimentary basin of the Dead Sea, each fault accommodating ∼ 2 mm/yr. Locking depths are small (less than 2 km on the western branch, ∼ 6 km on the eastern branch). Along the southern profile, we are once again unable to fit the data using the simple model, similar to the central profile. It is very difficult to propose a velocity greater than 4 mm/yr, i.e. smaller than that along the central profile. This leads us to propose that a part of the relative movement from Sinai to Arabia is accommodated along faults located west of our profiles.

Use of culture-independent studies have greatly increased our understanding of the microbiology of hypersaline lakes (the Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake) and saltern ponds in recent years. Exciting new information has become available on the microbial processes in Antarctic lakes and in deep-sea brines. These studies led to the recognition of many new lineages of microorganisms not yet available for study in culture, and their cultivation in the laboratory is now a major challenge. Studies of the metabolic potentials of different halophilic microorganisms, Archaea as well as Bacteria, shed light on the possibilities and the limitations of life at high salt concentrations, and also show their potential for applications in bioremediation.

The subduction between Nubia and Eurasia and activities along the Red Sea, Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba may control the surface deformation in the north-eastern corner of the African continent. Using very few GPS stations in the Egyptian region, previous studies indicate northward motion of northern Nubia with respect to Eurasia of about 5 mm/yr (McClusky et al., 2000; Reilinger et al., 2006; Mahmoud et al., 2005). In order to constrain better the movement rate of northern Nubia and interaction between Nubia, Eurasia and Arabia plates, we are using for the first time 16 permanent GPS stations in combination with 47 non-permanent stations covering Egypt for the period 2006–2012. This paper extends the previous study (Saleh and Becker, 2013) by processing in addition to the Egyptian stations 86 permanent stations belonging to three different tectonic plates. This led to a considerably better coverage of the Sinai–Dead Sea region. This work intends to be the first comprehensive analysis of the permanent stations in combination with the various campaign data in selected regions of special interest in Egypt. The GPS sites show a relative motion between Nubia and Eurasia of about 6.5 ± 1 mm/yr, which increased toward the Hellenic trench, 8.2 ± 0.8 mm/yr in Sinai peninsula, 14.2 ± 1.4 mm/yr in the north of Arabian plate and 22.3 ± 0.7 mm/yr in eastern and central Turkey. The strain computation indicates high strain rates, where the deformation is strongly localized along the Dead Sea fault, and low to moderate strain rate in the Gulf of Suez and southern Sinai.

The Dead Sea (DS) coastal areas have been dramatically affected by sinkhole formation since around 1990. Such sinkholes along both Israeli and Jordanian shores are linked to karst cavities that form through slow salt dissolution. A quantitative estimate of such in-situ salt karstification would be an important indicator of sinkhole hazard. One of the indications of salt karstification is its increased hydraulic conductivity, caused by the development of dissolution cavities forming conducting channels within the salt layer. We measured the hydraulic conductivity (K) versus shear-wave velocity (Vs) of DS salt in situ for estimating the actual salt karstification in areas of sinkhole development. These parameters were measured with the Magnetic Resonance Sounding (MRS) and Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) methods, respectively. Understanding of the field relationships was augmented by similar inter-relations obtained in the laboratory on samples of DS salt. In-situ salt velocities Vs vary from 750 m/s to over 1650 m/s, while hydraulic conductivity (K) in the same zones varies between about 10− 4 m/s to slightly over 10− 8 m/s. Both field and laboratory K and Vs values fit the exponential function ln(K) = − 0.0045 ∗ Vs − 5.416 with a determination coefficient (R2) of 0.88. A classification based on Vs and K was generated for salt conditions and the corresponding degrees of sinkhole hazard, which was verified in the Mineral Beach sinkhole development area. The mapping of sinkhole sites shows that they form within highly conductive zones with K ≥ 5.5 ∗ 10− 5. It is suggested that this methodology, with some modification, can be used for evaluating the conductive properties of karstified rock and associated sinkhole hazards.

In this paper, the severe dust event of 3–8 July 2009 in the Middle East is simulated using the WRF–DuMo model. To improve the model capacity in dust emission estimates, the effect of soil salt on threshold friction velocity for wind erosion is taken into consideration. A soil-salt propagation map and the other input parameters are compiled based on remote sensing and a Geographic Information System. The satellite images and synoptic data are used for the validation of the model results. Synoptic analysis is done for the Middle East and the synoptic systems for the severe dust event are identified. Comparison of the model results with the observed data shows that in the Aral–Caspian Sea area, central Iran and the Dead Sea Basin, dust emission is suppressed due to the high soil-salt content. The model shows better performances when the soil-salt effect is considered.

This paper shows for the first time a field-based estimation of the volume of dispersive density-driven long-term seawater circulation in coastal aquifers, which is crucial to the understanding of water–rock interaction and to the assessment of its potential impact on elemental mass balances in the sea. The Dead Sea is an ideal place for studying this type of circulation due to the absence of tides and the accessibility of the shallow fresh–saline transition zone. The unique antithetical behavior of 226 Ra and 228 Ra during seawater circulation in the Dead Sea aquifer, where 228 Ra is added and 226 Ra is removed, provides a robust new method for quantifying aquifer circulation. Here we estimate water circulation through the Dead Sea aquifer to be 400 million m 3 /yr (∼2.5 million m 3 /yr per 1 km of shoreline), which is ∼20% of the fresh water inflow prior to the 1960s. This large volume can affect trace element concentrations in the Dead Sea, e.g. it is a sink for 226 Ra, Ba and U and a source for 228 Ra and Fe. These results suggest that dispersive density-driven seawater circulation in aquifers may play an important role in mass balances in other lacustrine and oceanic settings.

The Roum fault is a fault branch of the Dead Sea Transform Fault within the Lebanese Restraining Bend. It is an active seismogenic fault that was associated with the 1 January 1837 (Ms 7.1) earthquake, and whose extent has been the subject of great controversy within the restraining bend. In this paper, the Roum fault is revisited after a dam project (the Bisri dam) has been planned in one of the fault's most critical locations, i.e. in the Bisri valley that hosted the epicenter of the 16 March 1956 (ML 5.8) earthquake. The fault and its associated structures in the proposed dam area are discussed, and highlights on the dam site are made as a geologically complex and tectonically active area. The future water body behind the planned Bisri dam will overlie an active fault, with huge potential for fault movement underneath the dam footprint, liquefaction around the dam foundations, mass movements near the dam site, and direct effect on inducing seismicity on a delicate fault system that can potentially trigger a major earthquake that can affect the whole Lebanon and its surroundings. This requires special attention and in-depth considerations especially of the potential of reservoir-induced/triggered seismicity on the seismogenic Roum fault, and makes of the Bisri area a very unfavorable site for the proposed Bisri dam in Lebanon.

To reveal the development of the stress field near the Arava basin located along the Dead Sea Fault system, we characterized joint sets that were exposed mainly in the Santonian and Eocene chalk rock outcropping in the study area. In total, ~2600 strike orientations of single-layer joints (SLJ) and multilayer joints (MLJ) mirrored four main stress fields: 1) σHNW(J1-326°), 2) σHNNW(J2-343°), 3) σHNNE(J3-033°), and 4) σHN (J4-360°). The results showed that the relatively lower values of the fracture spacing ratio (FSR) and their standard deviations in J1 implied that J1 was formed during the burial stage of the Eocene chalk formations. The inconsistency between the statistical parameters of the log-normal distributions of joint spacing and FSR raised doubt about the applicability of the “saturation joint density model” in our studied area. The joint sets characteristics suggest that the regional σHNW operated during the Eocene. During the Miocene, the regional stress field changed clockwise to σHNNW, probably in association with the early stage of transform motion along the Dead Sea Fault. In the Pliocene-Pleistocene, the σHNNE and σHN local stress fields both operated and were accompanied by a tensional stress field that can be identified in the intensive normal faulting evolved along the western Arava basin margins.

Despite numerous studies examining salt tectonics, relatively little is known regarding the internal movements of salt units that build diapirs such as the Mount Sedom salt wall. In this study we focus on the recent deformation processes of southern Mount Sedom. We choose a fossilized dissolution surface known as the “salt mirror” of Mount Sedom as a structural datum, in order to understand and resolve the deformation processes during the last 14 ka. Surveying the salt mirror surface from outcrops and natural dissolution “chimney” caves, sets constraints for the structural map. Our results indicate that the salt wall rises as a telescopic antenna, with the internal salt units sliding across each other along bedding-plane slip faults, influenced by the subsiding Dead Sea basin. The flow of the rising salt forms an elongated ridge, distinctly asymmetric across its short dimension. The uplift rate of the Southern part of Mount Sedom throughout the last 14 ka is at least 11 mm/yr. This result is somewhat higher but in a fair agreement with the results of previous studies that assessed the rates in a variety of methods. The telescopic behavior of the salt wall represents a mode of internal deformation that might be applicable to other salt diapirs worldwide.

The drug ‘‘mumia vera’’ has a long tradition in ancient medicine. It was considered an omnipotent panacea for a broad spectrum of diseases based on virtue associated with asphalt and other bituminous substances combined with the belief in the magic healing power of death. This made it a precious ingredient of medication and it represents a particular facet of medicinal cannibalism. ‘‘Mumia’’ was a common, and much sought after, component of pharmacists’ stock in trade, particularly in the Middle Ages. A shortage of sources for authentic mummies from Egypt resulted in the production of fakes, including dried human bodies. A rare tiny residue in a historic 18th century pharmaceutical vessel labelled MUMIA was microscopically subsampled and analysed with Curie point pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (CP-py-GC–MS) and GC–MS. From the data (e.g. fatty acids, terpenes, triterpenoids, n-alkanes, n-alkenes, wax esters) there is strong evidence that the vessel contained authentic mummy material. All subsamples could be put into a logical context of the mummification process and its product, i.e. fibres from bandages, wrappings or filling material, conifer wood fibres as a possible part of cover material, ‘‘used’’ embalming material in the form of a mixture of cedrium, pistachia resin (possibly Chios turpentine) and beeswax, (hydrolysed) fat (evidently including human sebum, possibly adipocere), mummified skin or tissue (possibly treated with polyunsaturated plant oil, highly oxidised by the time of analysis) and Dead Sea asphalt with a possible admixture of some asphalt from a different source.