Search

The competition for marine space is a recognized challenge, and the implementation of new activities, such as those emerging from Blue Growth initiatives, may amplify this competition. The marine spatial planning (MSP) framework requires decision makers to analyse spatially explicit environmental and socio-economic data to determine where user conflicts are or might emerge and consider several potential management scenarios. In the present research, a spatially explicit Bayesian belief network (BBN) was applied for this purpose. The BBN was developed to analyse the potential reallocation of artisanal fishing effort to alternative sites due to the introduction of a new, non-take area: an offshore aquaculture site along the Basque continental shelf. The constructed model combined discrete, operational fisheries data, continuous environmental data, and expert judgment to produce fishing activity suitability maps for three different metiers (longlines, nets and traps). The BBN was run with various effort reallocation scenarios for each metier, and the best alternative fishing locations were identified based on environmental suitability, past revenue, and past fishing presence. The closure had a lesser effect on net and longline activity, displacing 10% and 7% of local fishing effort respectively. Comparatively, 50% of all local effort by traps took place within the closed grounds, and few alternative sites were identified. Nets were found to have the greatest number of alternative fishing grounds surrounding the aquaculture site. The present research demonstrates how BBNs can support spatially explicit scenario building and user-user conflict analysis for sustainable and successful ecosystem-based marine spatial planning.

Marine renewable energy has considerable potential for enhancing the diversity of renewable sources, to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and combat climate change. While the technological development of wave energy converters is progressing rapidly, their environmental impacts are still largely unknown, which is a barrier that could hinder their deployment. This research contributes to the state-of-the-art by introducing a framework for quantifying and analysing the ecological risks of three technologies (oscillating water columns, oscillating wave surge converters, and wave turbines). Based on a literature review, expert consultation process, and the development of a web tool, the potential pressures and the ecosystem elements that might be affected during the life cycle of a generic wave farm (an array of wave energy converters) are investigated. The main pressures are found to be physical disturbance, physical loss, hydrological change, and noise. The ecosystem elements sustaining the largest number of pressures and, therefore, at higher ecological risk are fish and cephalopods species, and benthic and pelagic habitats. The ecological risk assessment framework is operationalized into a free-access web tool ( https://aztidata.es/wec-era/ ) for the interactive assessment and visualisation of the pressures and ecological risks. The tool is intended to be used by managers, decision makers, scientists or promoters during the Strategic Environmental Assessment and Environmental Impact Assessment of wave energy projects. The novel approach presented in this work is more sophisticated than previous risk assessment matrices, enabling to better capture the complexity of the interactions between a wave farm and the environment.

Marine or maritime spatial planning (MSP) works across borders and sectors to ensure human activities at sea take place in an efficient and sustainable way. The ecosystem service (ES) concept links ecosystem functioning to human wellbeing and has emerged as a potential framework supporting MSP, as it can be used to link different sectorial and environmental policies. However, due to the complexity of the marine realm, mapping and assessment of ES is still in its infancy and there remains a need to develop and agree upon the appropriate progress in ES development to support MSP. This contribution highlights research needs and recommendations to advance the operationalization of the ES concept into MSP. We apply a mixed method approach combining literature research and expert knowledge derived from 14 case studies, to address current status and prospects of ES application in MSP. We present nine main needs dealing with (i) improvement and adaptation of existing ES frameworks and classifications to the marine realm and (ii) definition of an indicator pool; (iii) methodological and technical developments to support data availability and accessibility; (iv) advances in mapping and modelling methods; (v) improvements in assessment and valuation approaches; (vi) further use of scenario and trade-off analysis; (vii) taking advantage of supporting Information Technologies (IT); (viii) improvements in communication and engagement with stakeholders; and (ix) further work for the integration of ES knowledge into policies and for supporting management and MSP. The manuscript concludes with a set of recommendations to foster the operationalization of the ES concept into MSP.

A critical prerequisite for the assessment and management of human activities and natural ecosystem components, is the availability of data and information on their spatial and temporal distribution. Based on European seabed habitats and human activities datasets publicly available in EMODnet portal, and adopting the Marine Reporting Units (MRUs) defined by the Marine Strategy Framework and Water Framework Directives, this study analyses the (i) geographical overlap of human activities and seabed habitats, and (ii) the suitability, limitations and gaps of these datasets for management purposes. The analysis concerns an area of 19,269,645 km2 and 6,539 assessment units. Seabed habitats information is available for 75% of the total area and gaps are found in several littoral areas and the outermost Atlantic regions. Significant difference in the number of records per human activity type are also reported, corresponding the highest number of records to the “State of Bathing waters” monitoring stations, and “Active licences” and “Boreholes” for hydrocarbon extraction. A good coverage of vessel traffic information is also available. Most human activity records are located on coastal water bodies (49%) and subregions (37%), but for several MRUs records are not available. From the 63 EUNIS habitat types, 11 host more than 20 different activities, although many available records are located in areas with no seabed habitats information. The information and datasets elaborated in this research may be useful to support different environmental assessment and management initiatives. However, the completion and improvement of these datasets is highly recommended to fulfil policy requirements.

To support ecosystem-based management and achieve the Good Environmental Status (GES) of marine waters it is important to better comprehend the relationships between biodiversity and environmental disturbance (anthropogenic and natural). Biotic indices are widely used in studies to help understanding these relationships and to assess the environmental status of waters. In recent years, trait-based indices rapidly emerged as an alternative ‘functional’ approach to serve this purpose. In this study, we analysed how two indices based upon the mean (community-weighted mean trait value–CWM) and the diversity of multiple traits (Rao’s quadratic entropy–Rao) in a macroinvertebrate community respond to natural- and anthropogenic seafloor disturbance (effluents) and we compared their performance with the widely used AMBI and M-AMBI. Our results demonstrate that CWM and Rao were not effective in indicating anthropogenic disturbance in the Basque coast, Bay of Biscay. The main reason was probably that many traits did not have a strong link with this type of disturbance. Besides, the mechanistic links between certain traits and their response to anthropogenic seafloor disturbance in marine environments is currently not well understood. From a management perspective: the CWM does not provide a single value indicating a quality status, which makes it a difficult tool to use and interpret. This index is probably more useful for scientists who want to explore and understand different aspects of community functioning. On the other hand, Rao and other indices expressing trait diversity do provide a single value of functioning; therefore they could potentially be effectively used for management purposes. However, to improve its performance, detailed and accurate trait data is required, which is currently lacking for many marine species.

Diversification and intensification of maritime activities can create competition for marine space and can derive stress and environmental pressures. Therefore, all dynamics of marine environment should be considered in transboundary planning in line with an ecosystem-based maritime spatial planning (EB-MSP). Mobility of human activities across borders and ecological conditions in the Bay of Biscay make it essential to enhance cross-border regulations, strategies and cooperation to ensure coherence across biogeographical boundaries and to use common knowledge. This research aims to identify the key issues and challenges in order to raise recommendations for a transboundary EB-MSP in the Bay of Biscay, for achieving socio-economic and environmental objectives based on a holistic vision of economic, environmental and social settings, and present management practices. In order to reach this objective; settings of the area with economic, environmental and social dynamics were drawn, existing MSFD program of measures and conservation practices, as well as measurable objectives were analysed, and critical issues with recommendations for planning and implementation phases were emphasised. The results indicate that program of measures of France and Spain focused on the similar concerns, however both countries followed different methods. Accordingly, recommendations could be drawn on key six topics such as space conflict, offshore structures, joint risk assessment, marine litter, measures and objectives and cross-border governance. Hence, this research concludes that there are different objectives for the same marine regions from two countries, and it is significant to integrate process leaders, working groups and responsible regional authorities to achieve coherent and efficient transboundary EB-MSP.

Piroddi, Chiara ... et. al.-- 17 pages, 4 figures, 5 tables, 1 appendix supplementary data http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.05.037, The European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) seeks to achieve, for all European seas, “Good Environmental Status” (GEnS), by 2020. Ecological models are currently one of the strongest approaches used to predicting and understanding the consequences of anthropogenic and climate-driven changes in the natural environment. We assess the most commonly used capabilities of the modelling community to provide information about indicators outlined in the MSFD, particularly on biodiversity, food webs, non-indigenous species and seafloor integrity descriptors. We built a catalogue of models and their derived indicators to assess which models were able to demonstrate: (1) the linkages between indicators and ecosystem structure and function and (2) the impact of pressures on ecosystem state through indicators. Our survey identified 44 ecological models being implemented in Europe, with a high prevalence of those that focus on links between hydrodynamics and biogeochemistry, followed by end-to-end, species distribution/habitat suitability, bio-optical (remote sensing) and multispecies models. Approximately 200 indicators could be derived from these models, the majority of which were biomass and physical/hydrological/chemical indicators. Biodiversity and food webs descriptors, with ∼49% and ∼43% respectively, were better addressed in the reviewed modelling approaches than the non-indigenous species (0.3%) and sea floor integrity (∼8%) descriptors. Out of 12 criteria and 21 MSFD indicators relevant to the abovementioned descriptors, currently only three indicators were not addressed by the 44 models reviewed. Modelling approaches showed also the potential to inform on the complex, integrative ecosystem dimensions while addressing ecosystem fundamental properties, such as interactions between structural components and ecosystems services provided, despite the fact that they are not part of the MSFD indicators set. The cataloguing of models and their derived indicators presented in this study, aim at helping the planning and integration of policies like the MSFD which require the assessment of all European Seas in relation to their ecosystem status and pressures associated and the establishment of environmental targets (through the use of indicators) to achieve GEnS by 2020, This manuscript has resulted from the DEVOTES (DEVelopment Of innovative Tools for understanding marine biodiversity and assessing good Environmental Status) project funded by the European Union under the 7th Framework Programme, ‘The Ocean of Tomorrow’ Theme (Grant Agreement No. 308392), http://www.devotes-project.eu

Benthic habitats on the Basque continental shelf were mapped based on multibeam echosounder surveys, grab sampling, video surveys and oceanographic monitoring. A total area of 2302km2was classified according to the European Nature Information System (EUNIS) hierarchical classification. Almost 50% of the area corresponded to rock and other hard substrata and the other 50% corresponded to soft bottoms. The biotic composition of several areas was significantly different from the EUNIS habitat classes described previously; therefore, we propose a total of 13 new classes. The habitat mapping has contributed to improving the knowledge and application of several criteria and indicators used to assess environmental status in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive in relation to the biological diversity descriptors, such as non-indigenous species and seafloor integrity. It is also useful for other descriptors and for developing the sampling design.

If marine management policies and actions are to achieve long-term sustainable use and management of the marine environment and its resources, they need to be informed by data giving the spatial distribution of seafloor habitats over large areas. Broad-scale seafloor habitat mapping is an approachwhich has the benefit of producing maps covering large extents at a reasonable cost. This approach was first investigated by Roff et al. (2003), who, acknowledging that benthic communities are strongly influenced by the physical characteristics of the seafloor, proposed overlaying mapped physical variables using a geographic information system (GIS) to produce an integrated map of the physical characteristics of the seafloor. In Europe the method was adapted to the marine section of the EUNIS (European Nature Information System) classification of habitat types under the MESH project, andwas applied at an operational level in 2011 under the EUSeaMap project. The present study compiled GIS layers for fundamental physical parameters in the northeast Atlantic, including (i) bathymetry, (ii) substrate type, (iii) light penetration depth and (iv) exposure to near-seafloor currents andwave action. Based on analyses of biological occurrences, significant thresholds were fine-tuned for each of the abiotic layers and later used in multi-criteria raster algebra for the integration of the layers into a seafloor habitat map. The final result was a harmonised broad-scale seafloor habitat map with a 250 m pixel size covering four extensive areas, i.e. Ireland, the Bay of Biscay, the Iberian Peninsula and the Azores. The map provided the first comprehensive perception of habitat spatial distribution for the Iberian Peninsula and the Azores, and fed into the initiative for a pan- European map initiated by the EUSeaMap project for Baltic, North, Celtic and Mediterranean seas. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Economic activities are dependent upon natural capital (NC), which are responsible for ‘Ecosystem Services’ (ES). Understanding dependencies on NC provides insight into the ecosystem’s capacity to maintain and develop activities into the future. To determine ‘NC dependencies’, we present a framework linking maritime activities (bottom trawling, artisanal fisheries, aquaculture and tourism) to their demand for ES and further, to the NC components responsible for their production. The framework was operationalised using a spatially-explicit Bayesian Belief Network (BBN), using the Basque coast (SE Bay of Biscay) to illustrate our approach, in identifying trends in the strength and spatial distribution of NC dependencies. For example, benthic trawling was dependent on sedimentary habitats, with ‘moderate’ to ‘high’ dependency of 52% of the study area. The model can also extrapolate NC dependencies to a larger area where the activity currently does not operate, where benthic trawling was estimated to have higher utilisation of ES in deeper waters. When NC dependencies are combined with economic and legislative factors, the current spatial distribution of the activity can be explained, and the potential socio-economic impacts of management decisions could be predicted. The integrative approach contributes towards ecosystem-based spatial planning.

Effective marine spatial planning (MSP) requires evidence-based decision-making processes in order to achieve sustainable use of marine resources and ecosystem services. In accordance with this purpose, decision support tools (DSTs) were used as the primary assistant of planners and managers. As a further step of existing review efforts on DSTs, this research aimed to add value to current knowledge by capturing end user opinions on their applications in MSP processes. For this purpose, perceptions and experiences on tools were acquired using an inclusive questionnaire. In total, 92 MSP experts were reached from 28 countries to collect information on: (i) DST users’ profile; (ii) the contribution of tools in MSP implementation processes, (iii) user opinions and experiences; and (iv) their expectations to draw recommendations and to give insights for future developments. Results revealed that developers should keep tool-user interaction from development to application stage and focus on a publicly accepted MSP working flow. Besides, new efforts on environmental data collection are needed to enable ecosystem-based approach in MSP. Hereby, this research analysed end user perceptions and opinions on DSTs, and it concludes that users require tools providing multi-functionality, integrity and ease of use.

Recent environmental legislation, worldwide, aims to restore and protect the quality of the marine environment. Within this context, in order to maintain the good functioning of marine ecosystems, sediment pollution monitoring is becoming increasingly important. Hence, for this contribution, the spatial distribution of Cd, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni and Pb accumulation areas were determined, for the sediments of the Basque continental shelf. Statistically-assisted Geographical Information System (GIS)-mapping techniques were used, in order to infer the processes responsible for such accumulations. Differences in contaminant entrance pathways were observed between sectors. However, hydrodynamic conditions favored the rapid dispersal of contaminants and their stable distribution. The methodology used resulted in a suitable approach for identifying contaminant distribution patterns, which could be used in environmental assessment processes. Nevertheless, an important knowledge gap on the distribution of contaminants in offshore sediments was identified. Extensions of actual monitoring programs are suggested, in order to improve the information available for identifying the behavior and process-drivers for contaminants in offshore systems. This would permit the achievement of a more complete approach, to understand the effects of land-derived contaminants, on offshore systems.

The increasing human pressures on marine ecosystems and the need for integrating planning tools for managing and protecting the marine environment have pushed towards accurate assessments of the spatial distribution of human activities and impacts. An accurate understanding of the spatial distribution of fisheries will help determine potential conflicts that may arise in coastal regions as these regions are exposed to new types of resource use and development (e.g., renewable energy, aquaculture). This study characterizes the existing artisanal fishing activity along the Bay of Biscay in the Basque Country (Spain) by metier unit, by commercially relevant species biomass, and by trophic level. Total fishing pressure (measured as area covered per sampling effort) was calculated per metier unit by year (2009 and 2010), and aggregated using data collected from 10,185 fishing trip events, questionnaires, and other non-official logbooks. Results revealed that the spatial preferences and fishing intensities of specific metiers were linked to spatial location; water bodies closest to the coastline, especially in the most westerly areas of the Bay of Biscay, were more intensely fished. The integration of total fishing pressure across metiers is an important first step towards assessing the cumulative pressures of fishing, and determining the foundations for an improved ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management in Basque Country waters.

Marine Biological Valuation (BV) has increased in importance in recent years, due to the need to establish accurate maps of biodiversity value. However, there have been few exercises undertaken in Southern Europe, in putting a value on marine biodiversity whilst at the same time looking at several biological components. This paper presents the complete Biological Valuation Map (BVM) of the Basque continental shelf and estuaries, using the methodology developed for the Belgian Continental Shelf. It includes all available biological data (zooplankton, macroalgae, macrobenthos, demersal fish, seabirds and cetaceans), from 2003 to 2010. BVMs aim to compile all available biological and ecological information for a selected study area, allocating an integrated intrinsic biological value to the subzones within the study area. Here, the results highlight specific areas (such as Jaizkibel or Cap Breton Canyon), as having high or very high integrated BV, using all of the components. Furthermore, some biodiversity ‘hotspots’ have been identified, according to a specific ecosystem component (e.g. mid-parts of the Oka estuary, for macroalgae, and the Cap Breton Canyon, for cetaceans). Comparison with the results obtained from other European countries, and with previously high-importance delimited zones within the study area, showed similar spatial trends and patterns. Therefore, the objectives of this contribution are: (i) to analyse and establish a spatial ecological value map of the continental shelf of the Basque Country (southern Bay of Biscay), using present BV methods; (ii) to compare the results obtained to other European countries, and (iii) to explore the application of these results to the Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requirements. This map can serve as a baseline for future MSP and can also be used for the determination of the environmental status, within the MSFD, for the qualitative descriptor 1 (biodiversity).

Predicting species distribution and habitat suitability is of considerable use in supporting the implementation of environmental legislation, protection and conservation of marine waters and ecosystem-based management. As other seagrasses, Zostera noltii has declined worldwide, mainly due to human pressures, such as eutrophication and habitat loss. In the case of the Basque Country (northern Spain), the species is present only in 3 out of 12 estuaries. From the literature, it is known that at least 6 of these estuaries were formerly vegetated by this seagrass. Consequently, efforts to monitor and restore (potential) habitats have been enhanced. Therefore, we aim: (i) to determine the main environmental variables explaining Zostera noltii distribution, within the Basque estuaries based upon the Oka estuary; (ii) to model habitat suitability for this species, as a wider applicable management-decision tool for seagrass restoration; and (iii) to assess the applicability and predicted accuracy of the model by using internal and external validation methods. For this purpose, Ecological Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA) has been used to model habitat suitability, based upon topographical variables, obtained from bathymetric Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR); sediment characteristics variables; and hydrodynamic variables. The results obtained from the ecological factors of the ENFA (Marginality: 1.00; Specialization: 2.59) indicate that the species habitat differs considerably from the mean environmental conditions over the study area; likewise, that the species is restrictive in the selection of the range of conditions within which it dwells. The main environmental variables relating to the species distribution, in order of importance, are: mean grain size; redox potential; intertidal height; sediment sorting; slope of intertidal flat; percentage of gravels; and percentage of organic matter content. The model has a high predicted accuracy (Boyce index: 0.92). Model validation using an independent dataset in the Bidasoa estuary has shown the applicability but also the limitations in extrapolating the habitat suitability model to select suitable transplantation areas in other estuaries with similar morphological and biogeographical characteristics. ENFA-technique, applied with an accurate selection of environmental predictors, could be a promising tool for predicting seagrass habitat suitability which could assist on seagrass conservation and restoration programs worldwide.

The implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) is directing European marine research towards the coordinated and integrated assessment of sea environmental status, following the ecosystem-based approach. The MSFD uses a set of 11 descriptors which, together, summarise the way in which the whole system functions. As such, the European Commission has proposed an extensive set of indicators, to assess environmental status. Hence, taking account of the large amount of data available for the Basque coast (southern Bay of Biscay), together with a recent proposal for assessment within the MSFD, an integrated environmental status assessment approach is developed (for the first time) in this contribution. The strengths and weaknesses of the method, combined with proposals from the MSFD, are discussed.

The bathymetric LiDAR system is an airborne laser that detects sea bottom at high vertical and horizontal resolutions in shallow coastal waters. This study assesses the capabilities of the airborne bathymetric LiDAR sensor (Hawk Eye system) for coastal habitat mapping in the Oka estuary (within the Biosphere Reserve of Urdaibai, SE Bay of Biscay, northern Spain), where water conditions are moderately turbid. Three specific objectives were addressed: 1) to assess the data quality of the Hawk Eye LiDAR, both for terrestrial and subtidal zones, in terms of height measurement density, coverage, and vertical accuracy; 2) to compare bathymetric LiDAR with a ship-borne multibeam echosounder (MBES) for different bottom types and depth ranges; and 3) to test the discrimination potential of LiDAR height and reflectance information, together with multi-spectral imagery (three visible and near infrared bands), for the classification of 22 salt marsh and rocky shore habitats, covering supralittoral, intertidal and subtidal zones. The bathymetric LiDAR Hawk Eye data enabled the generation of a digital elevation model (DEM) of the Oka estuary, at 2 m of horizontal spatial resolution in the terrestrial zone (with a vertical accuracy of 0.15 m) and at 4 m within the subtidal, extending a water depth of 21 m. Data gaps occurred in 14.4% of the area surveyed with the LiDAR (13.69 km 2 ). Comparison of the LiDAR system and the MBES showed no significant mean difference in depth. However, the Root Mean Square error of the former was high (0.84 m), especially concentrated upon rocky (0.55–1.77 m) rather than in sediment bottoms (0.38–0.62 m). The potential of LiDAR topographic variables and reflectance alone for discriminating 15 intertidal and submerged habitats was low (with overall classification accuracy between 52.4 and 65.4%). In particular, reflectance retrieved for this case study has been found to be not particularly useful for classification purposes. The combination of the LiDAR-based DEM and derived topographical features with the near infrared and visible bands has permitted the mapping of 22 supralittoral, intertidal and subtidal habitats of the Oka estuary, with high overall classification accuracies of between 84.5% and 92.1%, using the maximum likelihood algorithm. The airborne bathymetric Hawk Eye LiDAR, although somewhat limited by water turbidity and wave breaking, provides unique height information obscured from topographic LiDAR and acoustic systems, together with an improvement of the habitat mapping reliability in the complex and dynamic coastal fringe.

This contribution integrates and analyzes data from high-resolution multibeam, seismic profiles, bathymetric LiDAR, and surficial sediment data for the geomorphological seascapes characterisation and process-description of the Basque inner and middle continental shelf (northern Spain). From the data obtained, the Basque shelf is characterised by a heterogeneous seafloor where, on a small spatial scale, different morphologies and sedimentary processes can be observed. Tectonic activity and sea-level changes, together with present processes of sediment supply and climatic conditions, have a critical influence on the present configuration of the continental shelf and the distribution of seafloor types. On the basis of all of the datasets, seafloor classification, bedform analysis, long-term sea-level change-induced seafloor features and anthropogenic features over the seafloor, are described. As a result, three distinct zones have been identified for the Basque shelf, related to the main geomorphological features and seascapes, as summarised below. (i) A western part, with a northwestern orientation, which coincides with the prevailing wave direction. This zone is characterised by a predominantly rocky substrate, except within the mouth of the Nervion estuary, where sandy sediments appear to infill a paleo-channel. (ii) A central part, which is oriented towards the northeast and receives less wave energy. Within this zone, a sedimentary seabed is predominant. Sorted bedforms are well developed and can be detected in water depths in excess of 90 m. (iii) An eastern zone, which is characterised by sedimentary seafloor and shore terraces; here, a flat rocky seafloor is covered by a thin layer of sediments. Throughout the study area, the bathymetry and sedimentary features of the shoreface and inner shelf are controlled mainly by climatic conditions, coastal dynamics and the underlying geological framework. The integration of these data sets, together with their interpretation, is a valuable source of information for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and constitutes a useful tool for implementing various European Directives.

According to coastal measurements, global mean sea-level has risen at a rate of 1.8 mm yr −1 between 1950 and 2000, with large spatial variability at regional scales. Within the Bay of Biscay, trends computed from coastal tide gauges records have revealed that sea-level rise is accelerating over this period of time; this is in agreement with rates obtained from satellite imagery in the open ocean since 1993. The objectives of the present study are: (1) to assess the evidence of the relative sea-level rise on coastal morphology and habitats in the Gipuzkoan littoral zone (Basque coast, northern Spain) for the period 1954–2004, and (2) to evaluate the relative contribution of local anthropogenic versus sea-level rise impacts for explaining inter-supratidal habitat changes. A high-resolution airborne laser altimetry data (LIDAR) has been used to derive a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of 15-cm vertical resolution. Coastal habitats were mapped for two periods, using historic airborne photography (1954) and high-resolution imagery (2004). Analysis of tide gauge records from Santander (northern Spain) has revealed that relative mean sea-level has been rising at a rate of 2.08 ± 0.33 mm yr −1 from 1943 to 2004; this is consistent with sea-level trends from other measurements within the area (St. Jean de Luz and Bilbao), obtained over shorter periods of time, and with previous results obtained in the Bay of Biscay. Based upon this sea-level trend and by means of a LIDAR-based DTM, the results have indicated that the predicted change along the Gipuzkoan coast due to sea-level rise was of 11.1 ha within the 50-yr period. In contrast, comparison of historical and recent orthophotography has detected only 2.95 ha of change, originated possibly from sea-level rise, and 98 ha transformed by anthropogenic impacts. Hence, coastal changes due to sea-level rise might be overwhelmed by excessive human impacts, at the spatial and temporal scales of the analysis. This work highlights that local anthropogenic impact is the major threat to Basque coastal and estuarine habitats, compared with natural erosive processes and global climate change driving forces over recent times.

Predicting species distribution and habitat suitability (HS) modelling, across broad spatial scales, is now a major challenge in marine ecology. The resulting knowledge is of considerable use in supporting the implementation of environmental legislation, integrated coastal zone management and ecosystem-based fisheries management. This contribution considers the identification of seafloor morphological characteristics, together with wave energy conditions, that determine the presence of European lobster ( Homarus gammarus ); and it predicts suitable habitats over the Basque continental shelf (Bay of Biscay), in summer. The results obtained, by applying Ecological-Niche Factor Analysis (ENFA), indicate that lobster habitat differs considerably from the mean environmental condition over the study area; likewise, that it is restrictive in terms of the range of conditions in which they dwell. The best of the environmental predictors found to be: distance to the rock substrate; Benthic Position Index; wave flux over the seafloor; and the underlying bathymetry. A habitat suitability map was produced, with a high model quality (Boyce index: 0.98 ± 0.06). The most suitable habitat for European lobster are locations at the boundary between sedimentary- and rocky-bottoms, coincident with seafloor depressions with a steep slope, with medium to high wave energy conditions, and located within a range of water depths of 35–40 m. This approach demonstrates the applicability of the method in case studies where only presence data are available, together with the inclusion of environmental variables obtained from different sources.

The airborne laser scanning LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging) provides high-resolution Digital Terrain Models (DTM) that have been applied recently to the characterization, quantification and monitoring of coastal environments. This study assesses the contribution of LIDAR altimetry and intensity data, topographically-derived features (slope and aspect), and multi-spectral imagery (three visible and a near-infrared band), to map coastal habitats in the Bidasoa estuary and its adjacent coastal area (Basque Country, northern Spain). The performance of high-resolution data sources was individually and jointly tested, with the maximum likelihood algorithm classifier in a rocky shore and a wetland zone; thus, including some of the most extended Cantabrian Sea littoral habitats, within the Bay of Biscay. The results show that reliability of coastal habitat classification was more enhanced with LIDAR-based DTM, compared with the other data sources: slope, aspect, intensity or near-infrared band. The addition of the DTM, to the three visible bands, produced gains of between 10% and 27% in the agreement measures, between the mapped and validation data (i.e. mean producer's and user's accuracy) for the two test sites. Raw LIDAR intensity images are only of limited value here, since they appeared heterogeneous and speckled. However, the enhanced Lee smoothing filter, applied to the LIDAR intensity, improved the overall accuracy measurements of the habitat classification, especially in the wetland zone; here, there were gains up to 7.9% in mean producer's and 11.6% in mean user's accuracy. This suggests that LIDAR can be useful for habitat mapping, when few data sources are available. The synergy between the LIDAR data, with multi-spectral bands, produced high accurate classifications (mean producer's accuracy: 92% for the 16 rocky habitats and 88% for the 11 wetland habitats). Fusion of the data enabled discrimination of intertidal communities, such as Corallina elongata , barnacles ( Chthamalus spp.), and stands of Spartina alterniflora and Phragmites australis , which presented misclassification when conventional visible bands were used alone. All of these results were corroborated by the kappa coefficient of agreement. The high classification accuracy found here, selecting data sources, highlights the value of integrating LIDAR data with multi-spectral imagery for habitat mapping in the intertidal complex fringe.

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) establishes a framework for the protection of groundwater, inland surface waters, estuarine waters, and coastal waters. The WFD constitutes a new view of water resources management in Europe, based mainly upon ecological elements; its final objective is achieving at least ‘good ecological quality status’ for all water bodies by 2015. The approach to identify these water bodies includes, amongst others, the sub-division of a water body into smaller water bodies, according to pressures and resulting impacts. The analyses of pressures and impacts must consider how pressures would be likely to develop, prior to 2015, in ways that would place water bodies at risk of failing to achieve ecological good status, if appropriate programmes of measures were not designed and implemented. This contribution focuses on the use of the DPSIR (Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response) approach, in assessing the pressures and risk of failing the abovementioned objective, using the Basque (northern Spain) estuarine and coastal waters as a case study, using the following steps: (i) determination of the water bodies to be analysed; (ii) identification and description of the driving forces producing pressures over the region; (iii) identification of all existing pressures within the water bodies; (iv) identification, from them, of the most relevant pressures; (v) determination, from the relevant pressures, of those which are significant; (vi) assessing the impacts on water bodies (in terms of ecological and chemical impacts); and (vii) assessing the risk of failing the WFD objectives.