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Psychometric studies reveal a variability that ranges between 30 and 75 % for different cognitive processes, both in humans and non-human animals. This variability has been ascribed to a “general intelligence” factor (g). Current studies implemented in non-human animals to identify individual differences in cognitive skills are still far from those applied in humans. We tested for cognitive performance in a fallow deer herd using a test battery of eight tasks based on measures for cognitive development in untamed confined wild animals: motor control, spatial memory, colour and tone discrimination and inversion, inhibitory control and symbol discrimination tests. g factor explained 60 % of the variability in cognitive performance. Significant correlations, both positive and negative, were found between the different cognitive processes studied. Likewise, the cognitive performance of the group was affected by a “collective intelligence” factor (c), inferred through variables describing the hierarchical structure of the studied population but which, however does not affect individual intelligence quotient of the members of the group.

Operant conditioning and quantitative and Qualitative Behavioral Assessment synergism can provide valuable information about animals' extinction/learning and emotional status. In this study, we tested operant conditioning with 300 donkeys using six different reinforcers. Simultaneously, we studied the effects 15 animal-inherent, environment and location, and test-related factors had on the response type and intensity, mood, and extinction/learning ability variables. We sought to test three hypotheses using nonparametric categorical analyses. First, we studied which of the 15 noncognitive factors could explain the variability of the 4 behavioral variables and their explanatory power. Second, we assessed the frontal and lateral ear positions donkeys displayed when each reinforcement treatment was implemented to study the correlations between the ear position and twelve mood Qualitative Behavioral Assessment categories. Third, we assessed which reinforcement treatment was more suitable to promote donkeys' learning and welfare, studying their success rate at completing the operant conditioning test and welfare-related behavioral signs, respectively. Almost all noncognitive factors significantly affected four variables (P

Scientific evidence for intelligence in donkeys could expose their historical unmerited cognitive derogatory status. Psychometric testing enables quantifying animal cognitive capabilities and their genetic background. Owing to the impossibility to use the language-dependent scales that are widely used to measure intelligence in humans, we used a nonverbal operant-conditioning problem-solving test to compute a human-analogous IQ, scoring the information of thirteen cognitive processes from 300 genetically tested donkeys. Principal components and Bayesian analyses were used to compute the variation in cognitive capabilities explained by the cognitive processes tested and their genetic parameters, respectively. According to our results, IQ may explain over 62% of the cognitive variance, and 0.06 to 0.38 heritabilities suggest that we could ascribe a significant proportion to interacting genes describing the same patterns previously reported for humans and other animal species. Our results address the existence of a human-analogous heritable component and mechanisms underneath intelligence and cognition in probably one of the most traditionally misunderstood species from a cognitive perspective.

We tested whether glutamate and/or testosterone administration to pubertal Dorper rams would increase their apptetitive sexual behavior (ASB) and consummatory sexual behavior (CSB). We then evaluated their ability to induce the sexual response of nulliparous-anestrous ewes during early spring (26° N). Dorper rams (n = 20, 11 months old) were distributed in four groups homogeneous regarding live weight ([LW], 55 ± 0.09 kg), body condition score (3.2 ± 0.1 units), and scrotal circumference (30 ± 0.3 cm) and received the following treatments of: 1) intramuscular glutamate (GG); 7 mg kg−1 LW of glutamate (every 3 days × 28 days; iv), 2) testosterone treated (GT); 1 ml of saline (every 3 days × 15 days; iv) + 25 mg of testosterone (every 3 days × 15 days; im), 3) glutamate + testosterone (GGT); 7 mg kg−1 LW of glutamate (every 3 days × 28 days; iv) + 25 mg testosterone (every 3 days × 15 days; im), and 4) GC; 1 mL of saline (every 3 days × 28 days; iv). Thereafter, nulliparous-anestrus Dorper ewes (n = 80; LW 42.2 ± 2.3 kg, body condition score 3 ± 0.09 units) were exposed to these treated males. On male-to-female contact, a sexual behavioral test (2 hours × 2 days) was conducted to evaluate the ASB and CSB frequencies. Afterward, the female reproductive performance (interval to estrus, estrus response, ovulation response, ovulation rate, and pregnancy rate) was quantified. Although the GGT-males had the best ASB and ASB+CSB (P

Breeding small ruminants is an important economic activity in arid and semi-arid regions. This activity has gained more prominence in the present climatic scenario. With increasing global warming, many researchers are analysing how locally adaptive animals maintain homeostasis in regions characterized by high air temperatures. However, there has been no standardization regarding which characteristics should be assessed to determine the adaptive capacity of these animals or included in breeding programmes to improve thermal resistance. Thus, the objectives of this review are: (1) to present an overview of characteristics involved in heat adaptation of highly adapted small ruminants and (2) highlight the characteristics that could be included in breeding programmes to increase the adaptability of herds. Much research has evaluated the immediate response of animals to thermal stress conditions, such as increases in rectal temperature, respiratory rate, and sweating. However, considering that homeostasis represents a condition of balance in a biological system and that animals adapted to the environment are in homeostasis, this review proposes to address the adaptive characteristics acquired over years of exposure to stressful conditions in arid and semiarid regions. These include morphological changes such as coat characteristics, alterations in blood constituents, acid-base balance, such as hormones, haematological and biochemical profiles, as well as advances in genetic assessments.

Eggshell, white and yolk chemical composition was compared across Utrerana breed varieties (black, partridge and franciscan) and Leghorn Lohmann LSL-Classic lineage. An Utrerana hens flock (n = 51) and a control group of Leghorn hens (n = 17) were housed individually allowing egg identification and quality characteristics assessment. Eggshell, yolk and white macroelements and microelements, carbohydrates, moisture, ashes, protein, fat (polyunsaturated and saturated), sugars, cholesterol, and α-tocopherol contents were analyzed. Simultaneously, itemized yolk fatty acids composition was evaluated. Calcium contents were higher in Utrerana eggshell (358.53 g/kg vs. 337.01 g/kg) and white (593.75 mg/kg vs. 584.31 mg/kg), while protein contents were higher in Utrerana yolk (17.40 % vs. 16.90 %) and white (10.60 % vs 10.30 %). Utrerana yolks reported higher α-tocopherol (102.00 mg vs. 88.00 mg), total polyunsaturated fatty acids (19.80 % vs. 16.60 %), and some monounsaturated fatty acids content (C18:1 n9: 42.68 % vs. 41.31 % ; C16:1 n9: 0.60 % vs. 0.50 %). Black variety and Leghorns reported higher linoleic acid contents (13.72 % and 13.27 %, respectively) than the rest of the Utrerana varieties. Conclusively, detailed knowledge on differentiated properties of eggs depending on the animals originating them enables a correctly approaching market needs to improve the profitability and find a competitive niche for local products.

The Merino-derived breeds represent a significant animal resource in terms of genetic diversity and socio-economic relevance. The aim of this investigation was to define the population structure and the genetic diversity of the Sopravissana, Merinizzata Italiana and Gentile di Puglia breeds by employing 30 microsatellite molecular markers, also taking Spanish Merino and Appenninica breeds into account, which are thought to represent the male and the female ancestors, respectively, of the Italian Merino-derived breeds. A further objective of this study was to remark on an issue generally linked to the development of genetic groups that are spread worldwide: the degree to which geographic effects and genetic origins are significantly influential in the evolution of a cosmopolitan genetic group, such Merino sheep. Blood samples from 174 individuals were collected and genotyped. A total of 366 alleles were detected. The mean number of alleles per breed ranged from 7.22 for Gentile di Puglia to 8.21 for Merinizzata Italiana. The mean values of observed heterozygosity (0.71) and expected heterozygosity (0.75) were high, suggesting that the total analysed population is characterised by noticeable genetic variability. The Fis calculated in each breed showed that a slight degree of heterozygosity deficiency exists within each breed. The Fst value calculated (0.048) (P