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Using a simple and environmentally friendly method, un-doped and 1 and 5 % cadmium doped cerium oxide nanoparticles (Cd doped CeO2 NPs) were prepared through Salvadora persica aqueous extract in the present study. The synthesized nanoparticles were confirmed by Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), Ultraviolet–Visible (UV–Vis), and Raman methods. Due to the results of PXRD, EDX, and UV–Vis, cadmium is well doped in cerium oxide structure. The results of FESEM showed that the synthesized nanoparticles are spherical and have an average size of 10–20 nm. The toxicity effect of synthesized un-doped and Cd doped CeO2 NPs on breast cancer (MCF-7) cell line was investigated using WST-1 test. Compared to doxorubicin as control, the results showed that the un-doped cerium oxide nanoparticles had more cytotoxicity compared with those of the doped nanoparticles and doxorubicin.

Objective To investigate the effect of Salvadora persica, Zingiber officinale andCurcuma longa plant extracts for the treatment of Eimeria tenella infection in chickens. Methods One hundred and fifty broiler chickens one-day-old were obtained from a commercial breeder and kept under strict hygienic conditions. The chicks were divided into five equal groups. The first group was kept as a negative control (uninfected/untreated), second group was infected with E. tenella (105) orally at 14 days of age (untreated), while the third group was infected with E. tenella (105) orally at 14 days of age, then treated with S. persica [900 mg/kg body weight (bw)] for 5 days. The fourth group was infected with E. tenella (105) orally at 14 days of age, then treated with Z. officinale (6 g/L) for 5 days and The fifth group was infected with E. tenella (105) orally at 14 days of age, then treated with C. longa (300 mg/kg bw) for 5 days. Treatment in all groups started after signs of infection appeared, i.e. from 18 to 22 days of age. Results There were significant decreases in Eimeria oocyst output in all treated groups from day 5 to 10 days post infection (dpi). The highest oocyst count occurred at 9 dpi and decreased on subsequent days. Red blood cell count (RBCs), hemoglobin concentration (Hb), and packed cell volume (PCV) showed significant decreases in the infection, Z. officinale and C. longa treated groups, but the S. persica treated group revealed non-significant changes in the first week after infection. The results of score lesion showed the highest lesion in the infected group with a significant decrease in the S. persica and C. longa groups; there was a non-significant decrease in the Z. officinale group. All the results were confirmed histopathologically. Conclusion Treatment with herbal extracts of S. persica, Z. officinale and C. longa were effective in decreasing oocyst production and reducing the cecum lesion score.

Water deficit severely limits productivity of plants, and pose a major threat to modern agriculture system. Therefore, understanding drought adaptive mechanisms in drought-tolerant plants is imperative to formulate strategies for development of desiccation tolerance in crop plants. In present investigation, metabolic profiling employing GC-QTOF-MS/MS and HPLC-DAD was carried out to evaluate metabolic adjustments under drought stress in the xero-halophyte Salvadora persica. The metabolite profiling identified a total of 68 metabolites in S. persica leaf, including organic acids, amino acids, sugars, sugar alcohols, hormones, and polyphenols. The results showed that higher cellular osmolality under drought stress was accompanied by accumulations of several osmoprotectants like sugars and polyols (sucrose, glucose, mannose, galactose, erythrose, sorbose, glycerol, and myoinositol), organic acids (galactaric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, and citric acid), and amino acids (alanine, phenylalanine, tyrosine). Upregulation of ABA and JA support to achieve early drought tolerance in S. persica. Moreover, accumulation of coumarin, gallic acid, and chlorogenic acid provide antioxidative defense to S. persica. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis showed that altered metabolites were associated with starch and sucrose metabolism, galactose metabolism, inositol phosphate metabolism, and phenylalanine metabolism. While during recovery, metabolites associated with lysine biosynthesis and alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism were significantly altered. The results of the present study imply that coordinated regulations between various metabolites, metabolic processes, and pathways empower the xerohalophyte S. persica to adapt under drought environment. The knowledge from this study will enable the development of drought tolerance in crops using genetic engineering and breeding approaches.

Objective To evaluate the effectiveness of antibacterial Salvadora persica stick on the colonization of oral pathogens in patients with mechanical ventilation. Method This research is quasi-experimental research with pre-test–post-test design. Oral care was administered every 12 h on patients who required mechanical ventilation for less than 24 h. The colonization of oral pathogen assessment was conducted with swab oral treatment before and 48 h after mechanical ventilation. The data obtained were analyzed with a paired t-test. Results The results of this research showed that the antibacterial effect of S. persica stick was significant in preventing the increase in the amount of oral pathogen colonization in mechanically ventilated patients (p Conclusion Oral care with S. persica can serve as a complementary therapy for patients with mechanical ventilation.

In the present article, a new adsorbent synthesized from Salvadora persica (miswak) powder with chemical activation has been applied to remove Acid Violet 17 dye from aqueous solution. Characterization of the synthesized adsorbent was carried out using the techniques of FTIR, SEM, BET, zeta potential and DLS. The effect of pH, adsorbent dose, contact time, initial dye concentration and temperature were assessed in batch operation. Maximum removal was favored at pH of 2, adsorbent dose of 2 g/L and temperature as 333 K. Chemical activation has increased surface area of raw adsorbent from 58.38 to 124.99 m2/g. Nonlinear regression has been applied for the model fitting of the experimental data. Kinetic data was well described by pseudo-second-order model. Weber-Morris model established involvement of multiple steps in governing the adsorption mechanism. Isotherm data was well described by Freundlich model. Root mean square error analysis was also applied to check the best model fitting. Maximum adsorption capacity values were obtained as 74.28 and 141.30 mg/g for raw adsorbent and activated adsorbent, respectively. Thermodynamic calculations established endothermic and feasible nature of the adsorption. The obtained removal of 97.24 ± 0.69% for simulated solution reduced to 91.17 ± 0.86% in case of real effluent containing 100 mg/L of dye solution as attributed to other compounds present in the actual industrial effluent which can compete on adsorption sites along with the targeted dye. Reusability study performed using ethanol as an eluent confirmed suitability of synthesized adsorbent for dye removal from wastewater. The obtained maximum adsorption capacity along with good reusability results depicted that activated Salvadora persica could be used as an efficient adsorbent for sequestration of Acid Violet 17 from the aqueous phase.

This study is to evaluate the potential of endophytic fungi of Salvadora persica for the production of bioactive compounds against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Forty-two fungal isolates were obtained from 135 young and old stem and 125 root segments. Those 42 isolates representing ten fungi include: Trichoderma sp. (the most common), two species of Alternaria, Rhizopus arrhizus and 6 sterile mycelia. The ten fungi were grown in liquid culture and their crude extracts were tested against pathogenic bacteria and fungi. Nine crude extracts gave positive reactions against pathogenic bacteria of which Alternaria sp. (A8) was chosen further study. The fungal isolate was growing as sterile mycelium and was identified by phylogenetic analyses based on LSU rDNA sequence data and it might represent undescribed species of Alternaria. Sixty-two bioactive chemical compounds were identified from the ethyl acetate crude extracts of Alternaria sp., of which the following were recorded as major compounds in the active sub-fractions. These compounds showed strong antibacterial activity in combination. Keywords: Arabian Peninsula, Antibacterial, Pleosporaceae, Molecular phylogeny

Purpose Natural products can have an important role in caries control through their inherent biological abilities. Aim The aim of the study was to compare thel remineralizing potential of alcohol and freeze-dried aqueous miswak (Salvadora persica) extracts (M, MFD, respectively), propolis ethanolic extract (P) and chitosan-nanoparticles (Cs-NPs) based dental varnishes either without or with 5% NaF (MF, PF, CSF-NPs) to 5% NaF varnish in primary teeth enamel samples with artificial enamel lesions. Methods F−, Ca++, PO4−− ions release was assessed at 1,2,4 and 24 h. Surface microhardness, topography, and mineral content were assessed for primary teeth enamel before and after enamel lesion formation and after treatment and pH cycling using Knoop microhardness and SEM-EDX analysis. Results F− was significantly released with NaF and MF, MFD varnishes; Ca++ and PO4−− were significantly released by Chitosan followed by miswak varnishes, while propolis varnishes released the least amount of ions. After treatment of enamel lesions and pH cycling, F− was significantly recovered by NaF, MF, and CSF-NPs descendingly, while, Ca++, PO4−− and surface microhardness were significantly gained by chitosan-nanoparticles and miswak varnishes. Conclusion Chitosan-nanoparticles and miswak containing varnishes were most effective in remineralizing enamel lesions probably due to the release of F−, Ca++, PO4−− ions compared to NaF varnish that released F− only.

Rhizospheric bacteria are known to possess plant growth promoting properties. In this study, the bacterium was isolated from rhizospheric soil of plant Salvadora persica L. collected from Juna Amrapar, Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat (India). The isolate was tested for the properties including nitrogen fixation, phosphate solubilization, indole acetic acid production, siderophore production and ammonia production. In addition, the salt profile of bacteria indicated its tolerance up to 12% NaCl (w/v) on starch agar. The antibiotic susceptibility test revealed that the bacterial strain Asp49 was resistant to Novobiocin (5 μg), Erythromycin (15 μg), Amikacin (30 μg), Teicoplanin (10 μg), Methicillin (5 μg) and sensitivity to Tetracycline (30 μg), Chloramphenicol (30 μg). On the whole, based on in-vitro studies, the ability of selected strain as plant growth promoter in the saline desert conditions of Kutch district is confirmed.

This study introduces a green preparation method for un-doped and 1, 4, and 8 % silver doped zinc oxide nanoparticles (Ag-doped ZnO NPs) by exerting the aqueous extract of Salvadora persica. The synthesized nanoparticles were confirmed through Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD), ultraviolet–visible (UV-Vis), Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), and Raman analyses. The results of PXRD, EDX, and UV-Vis confirmed the existence of well-doped silver in zinc oxide structure, while the FESEM outcomes exhibited their spherical shape and average size of 40-15 nm. The toxicity effect of synthesized un-doped (ZnO NPs alone) and Ag-doped ZnO NPs on brain glioblastoma cells (U87) was investigated by performing the WST-1 test. Accordingly, the un-doped ZnO NPs was observed to cause more toxic effects on U87 cells when being compared to the case of silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles. Thus, the stronger inhibitory effect of synthesized un-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles against U87 cells was similar to the inhibitory effect of doxorubicin at a concentration of 100 μg/mL.

The facultative halophyte Salvadora persica L. grow in arid, semiarid and saline areas. In present study, drought induced alterations in growth, ion homeostasis, photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence, ROS regulation and antioxidative defense components were analyzed in S. persica with an aim to elucidate the drought tolerance mechanisms. In response to drought, significant reductions in growth, photosynthesis, and photosynthetic pigments were observed in S. persica. However, leaf relative water content (RWC %) did not change significantly. In S. persica seedlings, the growth, photosynthetic pigment contents and photosynthesis were resumed to control level within 7 d, when the drought treated plants were re-irrigated. However, quantum yield of PSII (ΦPSII), rate of electron transport (ETR), maximum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm), and photochemical quenching (qP) remained unaffected under water deficit stress. The results suggest that both non-stomatal as well as stomatal limitations can account for photosynthetic reduction. The ionomics studies revealed no significant alterations in levels of Na+, K+, Ca2+, B, Cu2+, Fe2+, Mo, and Zn2+ in leaf tissue during drought. However, there was increase in levels of Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ in root tissue in response to drought. The activity of different enzymatic antioxidants like SOD, APX, and GR remained unaffected during drought, whereas POX activity increased and CAT activity declined under drought stress in comparison to control. This result proposes that vital ROS scavenging enzymes like SOD, APX and GR are at threshold levels to maintain the appropriate concentration of ROS. In S. persica, the ratio of AsA/DHA and GSH/GSSG (which are the indicators of redox potential of cell) remained steady or increased under drought which indicates that cellular redox level is maintained in this halophyte. Although ROS levels (H2O2 and O2•-) increased significantly under drought stress, electrolyte leakage and lipid peroxidation level remained unchanged in response to water deficit condition which indicates that minimal increase in ROS level under drought stress act in signaling for activation of ROS scavenging enzymes. Our results propose that decline in growth and photosynthesis is a vital energy conservation strategy of S. persica under drought condition. The rapid recovery of growth, photosynthesis and water relations in S. persica following drought seems to be a critical mechanism permitting this plant to withstand and survive under drought environment. In addition, our results implicate that efficient regulations of antioxidative enzymes in leaf tissue contribute in regulating the ROS level and cellular redox status, thereby protecting the plant from drought induced oxidative damage in S. persica. Consequently ion homeostasis, plant water status, and integrity of photosynthetic apparatus is maintained in S. persica subjected to drought. The results of present study propose that S. persica is a drought tolerant halophyte and it can be a potential candidate for restoration of degraded saline lands of coastal ecosystem.

Ethnopharmacological relevance This is the first study of the indigenous knowledge in regard to the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of oral diseases in the Central Punjab, Pakistan region. The study aimed to document indigenous knowledge about the treatments of oral diseases using quantitative ethnobotanical indices, as well as highlighting important medicinal plant species by comparing the data obtained with previously published ethnobotanical and pharmacological data. Methods The ethnomedicinal data was collected from local informants and Traditional Health Practitioners (THPs). The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Diseases Consensus Index (DCI) were calculated to analyse the documented data. The results were compared with those of the nine ethnobotanical studies highlighted in our literature review relating to oral disease, as well as many pharmacological studies evaluating the reported plants. Results In total, 72 medicinal plants belonging to 38 families were reported by the 180 local informants and 17 THPs interviewed. The most commonly used family, life form and plant part used was Asteraceae (6 species), herbs (30 reports) and leaves (22 reports) respectively. The RFC ranged from 7.61% (Berberis lycium, Dodonea viscosa) to 51.78% (Abutilon indicum, Accacia nilotica, Cuscuta reflex and Solanum nigrum), while the DCI varied from 0.062 to 0.78 with the highest value of DCI for Zizyphus oxyphylla and the lowest for Abutilon indicum. The most prominent species based on quantitative indices in the present study and comparison with previous published data were Zizyphus oxyphylla, Pongamia pinnata, Launea nudicaulis, Acacia nilotica, Abutilon indicum, Salvadora persica and S. oleoides. Conclusion This study has identified a range of medicinal plants traditionally used in Central Punjab, Pakistan for the treatment of oral diseases. This data can usefully inform the direction of future research and it is suggested that further detailed phyto-pharmacological, toxicological and clinical studies be conducted on the plant species documented in the study, especially those with the highest RFC and, DCI values.

Toothbrush tree or miswak (Salvadora persica Linn.) is an important medicinal species found abundantly on dry saline lands of the warm subtropical region. Seed germination responses of this plant are not fully known. We therefore studied the effects of salinity (0–500 mM NaCl), temperature (10/20, 15/25, 20/30 and 25/35 °C) and photoperiods (12 h photoperiod and 24 h dark) on seed germination and seedling growth. Seeds were scarified before germination to address physical dormancy. Seeds germinated better at low (10/20, 15/25 °C) to moderate (20/30 °C) in comparison to high (25/35 °C) temperature regimes. Seeds in 12 h photoperiod had higher germination percentages than those germinated in complete dark. Germination decreased with increases in salinity and seeds failed to germinate at 400 mM NaCl or higher salinity. However, un-germinated seeds when transferred to distilled water from high (400 mM NaCl) salinity germinated readily. Recovery percentage decreased with increasing temperature and there was no recovery under the highest temperature regime. Seedling growth was optimal at 15/25 °C and decreased with increases in salinity. Dry storage of seeds for 12 months resulted in substantial reductions in both germination and salinity tolerance. Our data indicates that the seeds of S. persica are sensitive to variations in different abiotic factors, which seems to act as a possible cue for germination and subsequent seedling growth.

An accurate, sensitive, precise and simple method was developed utilizing Gas Chromatography for the quantitative analysis of benzyl isothicyanate in Siwak extract and dental care herbal products claimed to contain Siwak. Rtx (30.0 m × 0.25 mm ID, 25 µm thickness) column was used and helium as carrier gas at a flow rate of 0.74 mL/min. The retention time of standard benzyl isothicyanate was 13.470 min under the described conditions. Linear regression data analysis indicated a good linear relationship between peak height measurement and concentration of benzyl isothiocyanate in the range of 10–50 µg/ml (R2 = 0.9971). The regression equation was y = 11,471x. The developed GC method was subjected to validation requirements set by the ICH for precision, accuracy, and robustness. The entitled GC analyses expected to be valuable for the determination of benzyl isothiocyanate in Siwak extracts and other formulations containing Siwak extract. The amount of benzyl isothiocyanate reflects the efficacy of the products. Keywords: S. persica, Benzyl isothiocyanate, GC, ICH guidelines, Quantitative

The acetone extract from root-bark of Salvadora persica L. (Salvadoraceae), is assayed for its antibacterial activity against some bacterial pathogens. By GC/MS analysis, the main chemical components of the acetone extract were found to be benzylisothiocyanate (39.4%), and benzyl nitrile (benzeneacetonitrile) (37.9%). According the extract concentrations used, the measured inhibition zones observed were between from 13.6 to 18.6 mm, 15.3–23 mm, 13.3–18.3 mm, 13.3–18.3 mm, and 12.3–19 mm, against the isolated plant bacterial pathogens namely Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Pectobacterium atrosepticum, Enterobacter cloacae, Dickeya solani and Ralstonia solanacearum, respectively, whilst it was between 8 and 12 mm, 8–9.6 mm, 8–11.6 mm, and 8–10.3 mm against Bacillus subtilis, Sarcina lutea, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration values of the extract were between 16 and 32 μg/mL against the growth of plant bacterial, and from 1000 to 2000 μg/mL against the growth of the human bacteria. In conclusion, the acetone extract of root-bark of S. persica showed strong antibacterial activity against the plant pathogens and some activity against the human pathogens were reported. The results suggested that using the acetone extract from root-bark of S. persica as bioactive agent against the growth of the studied plant bacterial pathogens.

Benzyl isothocyanate is the major active antibacterial metabolite in Salvadora persica roots “Siwak” beside two minor isothiocyanate derivatives namely; 3-methoxy benzyl isothiocyanate and 3-hydroxy benzyl isothiocyanate. The extraction condition effect on the amount of benzyl isothiocyanate was explored in detailed study. Both cold and hot extraction with different solvents was applied. The amount of benzyl isothiocyanate was estimated using HPLC and HPTLC. The results indicated that cold extraction of the fresh samples with chloroform offers the maximum amount of benzyl isothiocyanate. Drying process leads to great loss of the active component of Siwak. Keywords: Salvadora persica, Benzyl isothiocyanate, Soxhlet, HPLC, HPTLC

Salvadora persica L. (family Salvadoraceae) is a highly threatened medicinally and economically important arid zone plant species. With ever increasing demand, there is a pressing need for conservation and mass multiplication of this plant through biotechnological approaches. A large number of complete plantlets were obtained by direct regeneration from the nodal explants on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 2.0 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) + 1.0 mg/l indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) containing 30 g/l sucrose and 8 g/l agar at 16 h photoperiod. A high frequency of in vitro rooting was obtained on half strength MS medium supplemented with 3.0 mg/l indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The micropropagated plantlets were hardened using sterilized soil and sand mixture (3:1) and successfully transferred under field conditions. The genetic stability of micropropagated clones was evaluated using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. During the study a total of 43 RAPD primers were screened, out of which 8 primers produced a total of 37 clear, distinct and reproducible amplicons. The amplified products of all the regenerated plants were monomorphic and were similar to the mother plant, thus confirming the genetic homogeneity of tissue culture raised plants. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first report on the assessment of the genetic fidelity in micropropagated plants of S. persica, which could be successfully applied as one of the safest modes for the production of true-to-type plants for the germplasm conservation.

A novel, stable and inexpensive biosorbent@polymer composite was synthesized by coupling of the biosorbent (Salvadora persica roots, SPR) with polyhydroxy polyurethane foam (PPF). The SPR@PPF was characterized using different tools. It was clear that the surface of SPR@PPF contained nanocrystals particle dispersed in the amorphous phase and also contained 2.4 and 1.0 mmol/g of acidic and basic sites. Thermogravimetric curve showed two endothermic peaks at 304 and 396°C due to the cupling of SPR@PPF. The morphology (surface area, pore volume and pore radius) of SPR@PPF are 34.6 m2/g, 0.053 cm3/g and 15.4 Ǻ, respectively. The SPR@PPF has successfully utilized in removing of brilliant green (BrG; basic dye) and brilliant blue (BrB; acidic dye) from both acidic and alkaline wastewater. The SPR@PPF was proven efficient for the complete removal of BrG and BrB with a sorption capacity of 202.7 and 142.4 mg/g at pH values of 5–7 and 1–2, respectively. Sorption rate constant values (k1) are 0.09 and 0.23 min−1 and half-life (t1/2) are 11 and 4.3 min and the removal process is spontaneous (ΔG is −3.75 kJ/mol). The results sustained the suitability of SPR@PPF as efficient sorbent for the dyes removing.

We have demonstrated a one pot green protocol for the synthesis of highly monodispersed silver nanoparticles using leaves of Salvadora persica plant. When the leaf extract of Salvadora persica plant reacted with silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) solution it resulted in the synthesis of highly monodispersed silver nanoparticles with an average size of 3 nm. These nanoparticles were then completely characterized by UV–Visible spectroscopy, Transmission Electron Microscopy, Energy Dispersive Analysis of X-Rays, X-ray diffraction analysis and Fourier Transform Infrared analysis.

Halophytes, distributed from coastal regions to inland deserts have traditionally been used for medicinal and nutritional purposes. Living in sub-optimal conditions, these plants synthesize stress associated bioactive molecules, which are still remain largely unexplored. In search of natural antioxidant sources, antioxidant capacity (AC) and total phenolic content (TPC) of 100 medicinal plants (halophytes vs non-halophytes), commonly used as herbal teas, were investigated. Nutrients and phytochemical composition, especially phenolic metabolites in selected medicinal plants with higher AC were also determined. Most of the medicinal plants analysed for the first time showed considerable AC. In general, halophytes displayed higher AC and TPC than non-halophytes. High correlation indicated a major contribution of TPC in AC of these plants. Five medicinal halophytes i.e., Thespesia populneoides , Salvadora persica , Ipomoea pes-caprae , Suaeda fruticosa , and Pluchea lanceolata displayed significantly higher AC than synthetic antioxidants (BHT and BHA). Presence of bioactive phytochemicals including phenols (42.3–63.9 mg GAE g − 1 ), flavonoids (12.3–37.1 mg QE g − 1 ), tannins (8.7–20 mg TAE g − 1 ), proanthocyanidins (15.8–22.4 mg CE g − 1 ), carotenoids (0.07–0.84 mg g − 1 ), alkaloids (0.64–1.1 mg g − 1 ), and saponins (11.2–28.4 mg DAE g − 1 ) reflected therapeutic benefits of these plants. HPLC analyses showed that the hydrolysed extracts contained chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, catechin, and quercetin as abundant phenolic metabolites which may be responsible for higher AC. These plants were also found to contain suitable amounts of proteins (8.5–17%), carbohydrates (2.6–11.4%), fibre (31.6–41.2%), and minerals (2.1–9.7%) showing their nutritional potential that has already been exploited by rural communities. The present study highlights the potential of medicinal halophytes as a source of natural antioxidants, valuable phytochemicals, and essential nutrients for pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and chemical industries.

ISJ, ISSR and RAPD molecular markers were used for genetic diversity analysis of Salvadora persica from semi-arid and sub-humid climatic regions of Rajasthan, India. Salvadora persica is an evergreen shrub or small tree of family Salvadoraceae and locally known as “ Jaal ”. RAPD (10), ISSR (10) and ISJ (7) primers yielded 91.1%, 86.1% and 83.1% polymorphic bands respectively. Genetic differences and similarities based on UPGMA dendrograms and PCoA resemble with physical distances and climatic conditions of Jodhpur (semi-arid), Jalore, Pali, Pushkar, Merta (sub-humid) populations in present investigation. AMOVA revealed higher molecular variation within populations (64%) than among populations (36%). The chances of cross pollination through insect are more in short distance within populations than among populations and can be correlated with higher molecular variation within populations than among populations.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Salvadora persica L. chewing stick, commonly known as miswak is still being used as an oral hygiene tool for plaque control and prevention against gingivitis. Various studies have reported on the therapeutics and prophylactic effects particularly on periodontal disease. This review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of S. persica chewing stick compared to the standard toothbrush for anti-plaque and anti-gingivitis. Material and methods A PRISMA-compliant systematic search of literature was done from the MEDLINE, CENTRAL, Science Direct, PubMed and Google Scholar. Literature that fulfilled eligibility criteria was identified. Data measuring plaque score and bleeding score were extracted. Qualitative and random-effects meta-analyses were conducted. Results From 1736 titles and abstracts screened, eight articles were utilized for qualitative analysis, while five were selected for meta-analysis. The pooled effect estimates of SMD and 95% CI were −0.07 [-0.60 to 0.45] with an χ2 statistic of 0.32 (p = 0.0001), I2 = 80% as anti-plaque function and 95% CI were −2.07 [-4.05 to −0.10] with an χ2 statistic of 1.67 (p = 0.02), I2 = 82%. Conclusion S. persica chewing stick is a tool that could control plaque, comparable to a standard toothbrush. Further, it has a better anti-gingivitis effect and can be used as an alternative.

Several plants were used in traditional medicine; Juglans regia (Souak) and Salvadora persica (Miswak) are largely used for the oral hygiene in Arabic countries. Four extracts prepared with organic solvents of increasing polarity; petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, and methanol were used to test the antibacterial and antifungal activities of these plants with three different concentrations of each extract; 5, 10 and 15mg/ml. The results showed that Juglans regia seems to be more efficient against the isolated strains than Salvadora persica. Moreover the ethyl acetate extract of J. regia showed a high degree of antimicrobial activity. Forty bacterial isolates were identified from the oral cavity of healthy individuals of different age categories (from 10 to 44 years) and only seven isolates were selected and characterized as Staphylococcus saprophyticus (B1), Proteus vulgaris (B2), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (B3), Staphylococcus aureus (B4), Serratia marcescens (B5), Streptococcus salivarius (B6), Streptococcus mutans (B7) and a yeast species identified as Candida albicans (Y). The highest efficiency of all extracts of the two plants achieved with Streptococcus mutans (mean of diameters of inhibition zones MDIZs = 10.29mm) followed by Streptococcus salivarius (MDIZs = 9.75mm), Candida albicans (MDIZs = 6.45mm), Proteus vulgaris (MDIZs = 5.75mm), Staphylococcus aureus (MDIZs = 5.62mm), Serratia marcescens (MDIZs = 5.58mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MDIZs = 4.87mm) and Staphylococcus saprophyticus (MDIZs = 3.08mm).

Green tea (Gt), leafs of Camellia sinensis var. assamica, is widely consumed as healthy beverage since thousands of years in Asian countries. Chewing sticks (miswak) of Salvadora persica L. (Sp) are traditionally used as natural brush to ensure oral health in developing countries. Both Gt and Sp extracts were reported to have anti-bacterial activity against many dental plaque bacteria. However, their combination has never been tested to have anti-bacterial and anti-adherence effect against primary dental plaque colonizers, playing an initial role in the dental plaque development, which was investigated in this study.Two-fold serial micro-dilution method was used to measure minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of aqueous extracts of Gt, Sp and their combinations. Adsorption to hexadecane was used to determine the cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH) of bacterial cells. Glass beads were used to mimic the hard tissue surfaces, and were coated with saliva to develop experimental pellicles for the adhesion of the primary colonizing bacteria.Gt aqueous extracts exhibited better anti-plaque effect than Sp aqueous extracts. Their combination, equivalent to 1/4 and 1/2 of MIC values of Gt and Sp extracts respectively, showed synergistic anti-plaque properties with fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) equal to 0.75. This combination was found to significantly reduce CSH (p0.05) and lower the adherence ability (p0.003) towards experimental pellicles.Combination between Gt and Sp aqueous extracts exhibited synergistic anti-plaque activity, and could be used as a useful active agent to produce oral health care products.

In this paper a novel solid phase extraction method to remove Light green (acid dye) and Safranin O (basic dye) using Salvadora persica (Miswak) powder as a new biosorbent is described. The adsorption conditions such as contact time, initial dye concentration, pH and temperature were studied by using batch system. After optimization, Miswak showed an excellent removal rate for dyes, the extraction of the dyes was accomplished in a period range of 1-10 min. The adsorption kinetics data were in good agreement with the pseudo-second-order rate model (R 2 = 0.98) and the initial sorption rate (h) was found to be 0.01 g mmol � 1 min � 1 . The new adsorbent was found to have a maximum adsorption capacity of 17.3 mmol/g. The adsorption isotherms could be ade- quately described by the Freundlich equation (R 2 = 0.91) and the 1/n value is 0.9, which attributed to the heterogeneous surface structure of the Miswak. Study of the variation of the sorption of the tested dyes with temperature yielded values for DH, DS, and DG of � 21.0, � 0.056.3 and � 4.2 kJ mol � 1 , respectively.

Challenges of resistance to synthetic antimicrobials have opened new vistas in the search for natural products. This article rigorously reviews plants and other natural products used in oral health: Punica granatum L. (pomegranate), Matricaria recutita L. (chamomile), Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (green tea), chewing sticks made from Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.D.C., Diospyros lycioides Desf., and Salvadora persica L. (miswak), honey and propolis from the manuka tree (Leptospermum scoparium J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.), rhein from Rheum rhabarbarum L. (rhubarb), dried fruits of Vitis vinifera L. (raisins), essential oils, probiotics and mushrooms. Further, the review highlights plants from Africa, Asia, Brazil, Mexico, Europe, and the Middle East. Some of the plants' antimicrobial properties and chemical principles have been elucidated. While the use of natural products for oral health is prominent in resource-poor settings, antimicrobial testing is mainly conducted in the following countries (in decreasing order of magnitude): India, South Africa, Brazil, Japan, France, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, Kenya, Switzerland, Nigeria, Australia, Uganda, and the United Kingdom. While the review exposes a dire gap for more studies on clinical efficacy and toxicity, the following emerging trend was noted: basic research on plants for oral health is mainly done in Brazil, Europe and Australia. Brazil, China, India and New Zealand generally conduct value addition of natural products for fortification of toothpastes. African countries focus on bioprospecting and primary production of raw plants and other natural products with antimicrobial efficacies. The Middle East and Egypt predominantly research on plants used as chewing sticks. More research and funding are needed in the field of natural products for oral health, especially in Africa where oral diseases are fuelled by human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS).

Background A combination of 0.25 mg/ml green tea (leaves of Camellia sinensis var. assamica) and 7.82 mg/ml Salvadora persica L. root-sticks aqueous extract mouthwash (CoM) has been reported to exhibit antibacterial and anti-adherence effects against primary plaque colonizer biofilm in vitro and an antiplaque effect for a period of 24 h in vivo. Aim To assess the antiplaque effect of CoM during a four-day period. Methods A four-day plaque re-growth randomized crossover trial was conducted. A week after receiving dental scaling and polishing, all participants (n = 15) underwent polishing at baseline and a rinse with 15 ml of randomly allocated mouthwash (CoM, 0.12 % chlorhexidine (CHX) mouthwash, or placebo [Plc]) twice daily without oral hygiene measures for four days. After 2 h, samples of saliva were collected, using a quantitative polymerase chain reaction, to determine the bacterial load. After 24 h and four days’ time points, plaque quantity (using digital plaque image analysis) was recorded. Subsequently, the participants entered a six-day washout period with regular oral hygiene measures. The same protocol was repeated for the next two mouthwashes. Results CoM significantly reduced plaque accumulation (31.933 ± 10.025) compared to Plc (54.629 ± 17.555) for a period of four days; a comparable effect was ascribed to CHX (34.903 ± 11.871). Moreover, it significantly reduced the amount of Streptococcus sanguinis, Actinomyces viscosus, and Actinomyces naeslundii (primary colonizers) in saliva. Conclusion Using CoM for four days twice daily could reduce plaque accumulation and might be considered as an alternative to synthetic mouthwashes.

Aim of the study Pastoralist communities such as the Maasai are heavily reliant on traditional foods and medicines. This survey sought to identify traditional foods and/or medicinal plants of the Ilkisonko Maasai community living in Kenya. Materials and methods Ethnobotanical knowledge of traditional plants used as food and human/veterinary medicine was obtained using structured and semi-structured questionnaires administered through face to face interviews of key informants. Results A total of 30 species from 21 families and 25 genera were reportedly used as food and/or medicine by 48 respondents. The most commonly encountered genus was the Fabaceae. The growth forms encountered were tree (47%), shrub (33%) and herb (20%). Plants that were commonly mentioned by respondents were Salvadora persica (85%), Grewia villosa (52%), Ximenia americana (52%), Albizia anthelmintica (50%), Acacia robusta (46%) and Acacia nilotica (42%). The root/root bark was the most commonly used plant part (35%), followed by the stem/stem bark (30%), fruit (15%), leaves (11%) and whole plant (9%). Common ailments treated were stomach aches, constipation, back aches, joint aches, body pains and sexually transmitted infections. The plants were also used as tonics, digestives, and restoratives. Conclusion It was evident that traditional medicine was the preferred health care system for the Ilkisonko Maasai community. It is important to document and use this knowledge in producing novel products that could improve nutrition and healthcare in rural communities.

A novel and eco-friendly green procedure was developed for the synthesis of Au nanoparticles using stem extract of Salvadora persica. This plant stem extract provides a favorable environment for the formation of small size and well dispersed Au nanoparticles within 15–30 nm diameter. The Au nanoparticles were characterized by UV–vis spectroscopy, XRD, HRTEM, SEM, EDX and FT-IR. The particle size and morphology of Au nanoparticles were also investigated at different stem extract concentrations. The results showed that lesser the concentration of stem extract, spherical and small will be the size of Au nanoparticles. The present research indicated that the green synthesized Au nanoparticles can be used as an effective catalyst for the chemocatalytic reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP. Various factors i.e. catalyst amounts and particle size and shape that affect the chemocatalytic reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP were also studied. The results showed that Au nanoparticles synthesized at 15 vol.% extract's concentration have strong chemocatalytic activity and reduced 4-NP only within 3 min. It may be due to the single spherical shape and small size of Au nanoparticles.

Traditionally, in Middle Eastern countries, many cultures use chewing sticks of arak for medicinal purposes especially, for oral cleanliness care. It was used by Muslims for treatment of teeth and highly recommended to be used by Muslims during the whole day. Therefore, the present work aimed to determine the total phenolic content and total flavonoids in two Miswak extracts obtained from arak roots collected from two different localities in Saudi Arabia. They were extracted with aqueous ethanol (80%) and used to estimate in vitro their antioxidative abilities. The new findings showed that the two tested extracts contained significantly different amounts of both total phenolic content and total flavonoids. According to the increase of total phenolic contents and total flavonoids obtained from the two extracts, Miswak collected from the southern region was found to contain more contents than those collected from the middle region. The results of antioxidant activities of Miswak root extract obtained by using different in vitro methods were varied depending on the technique used. According to the malondialdehyde (MDA) method, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) scavenging ability and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) methods, the two Miswak extracts exhibited to have high to very high antioxidant activities. Mostly, the values of antioxidant activities of Southern region have been shown to be always the highest.

Since many small scale and resource-poor livestock farmers cannot afford synthetic pharmaceutical drugs, they turn to indigenous knowledge as an alternative key to unlock the power of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants to treat animal diseases. However, there is no ethnoveterinary pharmacopeia and data on ethnoveterinary usage of plants are still sparse. In this study, an ethnobotanical survey was conducted to document the indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases in Onayena and Katima Mulilo, Namibia. Using semi-structured interviews and questionnaires, ethnobotanical data were collected from 22 farmers in Onayena, Oshikoto region, and 20 farmers in Katima Mulilo, Zambezi region. The results showed that 16 plant species were used to manage various livestock diseases. Plant leaves were commonly used, being crushed in water, and administered orally or topically. Skin rashes were managed using the plants Aloe esculenta, Salvadora persica, Friesodielsia obovata, and Acanthosicyos naudinianus. Diarrhoea was treated using Ziziphus mucronata, Acacia karroo, and Solanum delangoense. The plants Ximenia americana, Combretum imberbe and Geigeria pectidea were used to relieve eye infections in cattle, goats and sheep. Wounds were treated with Orthanthera jasminiflora, Aloe zebrina and Baphia massaiensis. Livestock owners in Katima Mulilo used water extracts from the roots of Capparis tomentosa to treat the lack of appetite in cattle and goats. In Onayena, Fockea angustifolia roots were used to treat cattle suffering from anthrax. Further studies are needed to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations, biological activities and toxicities, and to characterize the plants' chemical compounds.

Salvadora persica L. of the family Salvadoraceae, is an evergreen shrub, with a short trunk 4–6 m tall, smooth green leaves and white bark. Meswak, a chewing stick is prepared from its stings and roots. Its anatomical structure as well as its chemical constituent which had been investigated from time to time in last three decades made this plant a choice as tooth-powder and tooth-cleaner. The acceptance of meswak is broad due to the fact that a part of Islam’s religious practice is the incorporation of dental hygiene and recommends meswak specifically for this purpose. Moreover the traditional use of S. persica as antimicrobial toothbrush stick for oral hygiene and to treat gum inflammation, is a part of Greeko-Arab system of medicine and is a centuries old practice. The available literature mostly stresses upon the higher antibacterial activity against oral bacteria of Meswak although the plant has other medicinal values. So keeping all of its beneficial therapeutic properties in view, this review was focused to highlight the available literature of its role in maintaining the dental hygiene and ultimately the potential and safely use as dental remedy.

Objective The antibacterial effect of Salvadora persica has been demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo. However, data on its possible antifungal effect is scarce. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the antifungal effect of solid or pulverized S. persica on clinically important oral Candida species in vitro. Design The antifungal activity of S. persica was examined against reference strains and clinical isolates of oral Candida species by two different methods. In an agar diffusion test, solid as well as pulverized pieces of S. persica were tested. Mounting the S. persica test specimens inside the lid tested growth inhibition by volatile compounds. Results S. persica exhibited antifungal activity against all Candida species tested. In particular, the volatile compounds of solid test specimens demonstrated strong growth inhibition, whereas pulverized S. persica revealed no antifungal activity. Parameters such as storage and incubation time as well as the diameter of the sticks influenced the growth inhibition. Conclusions Volatile compounds of S. persica have antifungal activity against oral Candida species. Storage time after harvesting may play an important role for the strength of this antifungal activity.

Summary Objective The in vitro antifungal activities of essential oil from Cuminum cyminum ( C. cyminum ) and alcoholic extract from Salvadora persica ( S. persica ) were investigated in order to evaluate their efficacy against C. albicans ATCC 14053, C. dubliniensis ATCC CD60, C. glabrata ATCC 90030, C. krusei ATCC 6258 and C. parapsilosis ATCC 22019. Methods The essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation in a Clevenger apparatus and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS). The disc diffusion and broth macrodilution methods were used as antifungal susceptibility tests. Results The GC/MS analysis allowed 17 components to be determined; the main constituents of C. cyminum essential oil were α-pinene (30%), limonene (21%) and 1,8-cineole (18.5%). C. cyminum oil had a broad-spectrum antifungal activity against different pathogenic Candida species. Inhibition zone values ranged from 7 to 50 mm for C. cyminum and 0 to 10 mm for S. persica against the organisms tested. The best minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of C. cyminum oil was associated with C. albicans and C. dubliniensis (289 mg/L) and the MICs of S. persica extract were 4.9 mg/mL and 20 mg/mL against C. albicans and C. dubliniensis , respectively. Conclusion The results suggested the potential substitution of the antifungal chemicals by C. cyminum essential oil and S. persica alcoholic extract as natural inhibitors to control the growth of the most important pathogenic Candida species and alternative therapies for candidiasis.

Aims: The use of natural plant extracts in pharmacology, medicine and dental hygiene has found a growing interest in modern scientific research. Salvadora persica is a natural tree whose fibrous branches have been approved by the World Health Organization for oral hygiene. Periodontitis is a highly prevalent adult gingival disease that leads to bone destruction and connective tissue attachment loss. The aim of this research was assessment the antimicrobial activities of methanolic extract of Salvadora persica (miswak) on isolated strains from the oral fluid. Methods: In practical section, 50 female university students (21.4 � 1 year) participated in the study. Based on examination by a periodontist, they were grouped into (Group I, n ¼ 21) and (Group II, n ¼ 29) i.e. with and without periodontitis respectively. Their un-stimulated saliva samples were obtained in sterile tubes. While three bacterial genera, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Lactobacillus were identified in all subjects, Enterococcus and Escherichia were only detected in Group I. Results: A statistically significant difference in colonization levels between the two groups was observed. The effect of methanolic extract of S. persica against oral bacterial strains isolated from saliva was investigated using agar disc diffusion and microdilution methods. Although methanolic extract of S. persica was effective on growth inhibition of all strains, it was significantly more effective on Gram positive bacteria than Gram negative ones. Conclusions: Effective substances present in S. persica extracts, exhibit a broad range of antibacterial activity and affect almost all bacterial species regardless of the Gram-staining nature.

Few studies were published on the effect of nebkhas (phytogenic mounds) on species diversity and soil resources, but no detailed study has been conducted yet on possible specific influence of nebkhas on growth and survival of the plants associated with them. We studied the nebkhas of Salvadora persica and their effect on growth and survival of three woody species ( Prosopis cineraria , Tamarix aphylla , and Capparis decidua ) in the Ommanian coast of Hormozgan Province in the south of Iran. The results showed that mean height and mean canopy diameter of P. cineraria and T. aphylla trees and shrubs inhabiting nebkhas of Salvadora persica were considerably higher than those of plants of these species growing outside nebkhas. The reverse occurred in the case of C. decidua . Generally, the percentages of stems with dead parts were significantly lower in plants inhabiting the nebkha sites in comparison to comparable ones growing outside the nebkhas. Salvadora persica nebkhas are enriched with more soil nutrients in comparison to inter-nebkha sites. Soil accumulated per each hectare in the nebkhas of the study area dominated by trees of Salvadora persica amounted to 237.6 m 3 . This indicates the great importance of nebkhas in the protection of soil and the associating species.

Miswak, scientifically known as Salvadora persica , is a species of Salvadora belonging to family Salvadoraceae. It is considered as “Nature's little toothbrush” as it is a popular chewing stick throughout Indian subcontinent. In India, it is commonly known as arak tree, meswak, peelu, kharjal or jhank. It also serves as a natural toothpaste with antibacterial, anti-caries, anti-periopathic disinfectant having anti-plaque and anti-fungal properties. Miswak sticks are being used by majority of people who cannot afford to buy the commercial western toothbrush and toothpaste mainly in rural areas of developing countries. The present review is an attempt to define the potential of the miswak in preventing and treating the common diseases of oral cavity and teeth.

Aim: To evaluate the efficacy of an ethanolic Salvadora persica extract in removing the smear layer following a root canal procedure. Methods: Sixty extracted, single-rooted human teeth were cleaned, shaped, and divided into four groups. Experimental groups 1 (n = 20) and 2 (n = 20) were irrigated with 1 mg/ml and 5 mg/ml of S. persica, respectively. The positive controls (n = 10) were irrigated with 17% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), while the negative controls (n = 10) were irrigated with saline. Approximately 5 ml of the irrigating solution was delivered into the root canals for 5 min, and the final rinse was performed with 5 ml of 1% sodium hypochlorite. Scanning electron microscopy was used to evaluate the endodontic smear layer removal at the coronal, middle, and apical thirds of the specimens. Results: A significant difference in smear layer removal between groups 1 and 2 at the coronal and middle thirds of the canal was observed, and no significant difference was seen between group 2 and the positive control at the coronal third. At the apical third, both concentrations of S. persica had similar effects and were less effective than the positive control in removing the smear layer. Conclusion: The 5 mg/ml S. persica solution was significantly more effective than the 1 mg/ml solution. In addition, the 5 mg/ml S. persica solution was as effective as 17% EDTA in removing the smear layer from the coronal third of the canal wall. Keywords: EDTA, Irrigation, Smear layer, Salvadora persica

Objective To have an antibiogram of hospital acquired (HA) and community acquired (CA) enteropathogens against 16 antibiotics to assess the infection dynamics for plausible help to the antimicrobial stewardship. To check extracts of 25 lesser-known plants used by an Indian aborigine, for antimicrobial efficacy in vitro and as complementary and alternate medicines against resistant pathogens. Methods Ten strains of enteric bacteria ( Enterobacter aerogenes, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella sp. , Salmonella paratyphi, S. typhi, Shigella boydii, S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. sonnei and Vibrio cholerae ) were isolated from clinical samples in 6 months and their antibiotic sensitivity was assessed by the disc-diffusion method. Concentrated aqueous and ethanolic extracts of leaves and barks of plants were used for monitoring their antibacterial potencies, by the agar-well diffusion method. Results Isolated bacterial strains were invariably multidrug resistant (MDR). E. coli was the most frequently isolated organism from HA and CA samples, followed next by Klebsiella sp. From the surveillance, it was evident that the distribution of MDR strains of each was more in HA than CA isolates. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Aegle marmelos, Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Salvadora persica and Terminalia arjuna were highly effective against the all isolated enteropathogenic strains. From the preliminary phytochemical analysis, it was confirmed that both extracts of A. indica, T. arjuna and T. alata contained all the detected phytochemicals (alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, reducing sugars, saponins, tannins, flavonoids and steroids), which plausibly attributed to their significant antibacterial activity. Conclusions Phytoextracts were highly effective against the all enteropathogenic bacterial isolates, in vitro . These 25 plants could be used further for the isolation of pure compounds for use as complementary medicines.

Ethnopharmacological relevance Salvadora persica shrub has been used traditionally in folk medicine for different medical condition treatments. The habitual use of Salvadora persica roots (chewing sticks) for dental hygiene is still wildly spread throughout parts of Asia, Africa, and Middle. It is one of the most important species with its reported strong antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral effects. Mechanical removal of dental plaque is regarded as an effective mean of controlling progression of periodontal disease. Aim of the study To evaluate the effect of active and inactive miswak on dental plaque, subgingival microbiota and gingival inflammation in patients with gingivitis. Materials and methods In this double blinded randomized controlled trial 68 gingivitis patients were randomly assigned to either active or inactive miswak group, and were instructed to use only issued miswaks for oral hygiene during 3 weeks experimental period. Registration of plaque, gingival inflammation, and plaque samples were taken at baseline and on completion of the study. Plaque samples were analyzed by DNA–DNA hybridization technique. Results Active miswak significantly reduced dental plaque (p = 0.007). There were no differences between active and inactive miswak in reduction of approximal plaque and composition of subgingival microbiota. Conclusions Miswak has an overall effect on dental plaque and gingival inflammation scores. Similar results were achieved by active and inactive miswak in difficult to reach areas, indicating miswak has limited chemical effects on this study population. Therefore, miswak can be used as a dental hygiene method in conjunction with interproximal cleaning aides.

Aim of the study The people in Ethiopia have been using medicinal plants over centuries and the traditional knowledge is passed verbally from generation to generation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to document the medicinal plants used by Kara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people and to establish association between the species richness and diversity, habit, parts used and administration of medicinal plants reported by the two people. Materials and methods Semi-structured interview was used in data collection; Chi-Square test, t -test and univariate analysis were used to compare medicinal plants knowledge between Kara and Kwego people. Informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), and preference ranking of medicinal plants were computed. Results Fifty-seven medicinal plant species were indicated that were distributed into 33 families and 52 genera. Thirty-four of them were common to both people whereas 12 were unique to Kara and 11 to Kwego. There was no significant difference ( p > 0.05) between the two people in medicinal plant species richness and diversity. The growth forms, parts of medicinal plants and their conditions: fresh or dry used in the preparation of remedies and route of administration were not different ( p > 0.05). Root was 55% of the plant parts used and oral was 61% of route of administration. The informant consensus factor was not significantly different ( p > 0.05) between the two people. Solanum hastifolium Hochst. ex Dunal, Salvadora persica L. and Maeura sessiliflora Gilg were preferred more than the other medicinal plants reported to treat the prevalent diseases by both people. Conclusions The information documented on the medicinal plants of these people may be used as baseline data for future studies on semi-arid and arid pharmacologically important medicinal plants and for phytochemical investigations.

Salinity and alkalinity are the two most important factors limiting agricultural productivity in arid and semiarid regions. Reclaiming these lands for commercial crops is too costly for most countries to afford. Faced with a declining base of arable farmland and increasing demand for food, fiber and energy, this warrants the need for utilization of naturally salt tolerant species (halophytes) in irrigated and non-irrigated agriculture. Salvadora persica, a facultative halophyte appears to be a potentially valuable oilseed crop for saline and alkali soils, since the seed contains 40–45% of oil rich in industrially important lauric (C12) and myrestic (C14) acids. Attempts were made to assess the performance of the species on saline and alkali soils. From the results it was evident that the species can be grown on both soil types, however height, spread and seed yield were significantly higher for plants grown on saline soils as compared to plants cultivated on alkali soils. No significant difference was observed in oil content between seed obtained from plants grown on saline and alkali soils. The study indicated that S. persica can be cultivated as a source of industrial oil on both saline and alkali soils for economic and ecological benefits, otherwise not suitable for conventional arable farming.

Effects of salinization of soil on emergence, seedling growth and mineral accumulation of Salvadora persica Linn. (Salvadoraceae) were studied. A mixture of chlorides and sulphates of Na, K, Ca and Mg was added to the soil and salinity was maintained at 4.3, 6.1, 8.4, 10.3, 12.5, 14.9 and 17.2 dS m−1. A negative relationship between seedling emergence and salt concentration was obtained. Seedlings did not emerge when soil salinity exceeded 14.9 dS m−1. Results suggested that this tree species is salt tolerant at seed germination and seedling stages. Elongation of stem and root was retarded by increasing salt stress. Young roots and stem were most tolerant to salt stress and were followed by leaves and old roots. Leaf tissue exhibited maximum reduction in dry mass production in response to increasing salt stress. However, production of young roots and death of old roots were found to be continuous and plants apparently use this process as an avoidance mechanism to remove excess ions and delay onset of ion accumulation in this tissue. This phenomenon, designated “fine root turnover” is of an importance to the mechanisms of salt tolerance. Plants accumulated Na in roots and were able to regulate transfer of Na ions to leaves. Stem tissues were barrier for translocation of Na from root to leaf. Moreover, K significantly increased in leaf, but decreased in root tissues with increased salinization. Nitrogen content significantly decreased in all tissues (leaf, stem and root) in response to low water treatment and salinization of soil. Phosphorus content significantly decreased, while Ca increased in leaf as soil salinity increased. Changes in elements accumulation pattern and the possible mechanisms for avoidance of Na toxicity in tissues and organism level are discussed.

This study investigated the toxic effects of an extract of Meswak from Salvadora persica for 30 days on the reproductive system of the mouse. The results showed that exposure to Meswak extract did not have much effect on female mouse fertility, although it caused a significant decrease in the relative weights of the ovary and an increase in uterine weights. Exposure of male mice to Meswak extract resulted in a 72% reduction in pregnancies in untreated females impregnated by test males. The relative weights of the testes and preputial glands were significantly increased and that of the seminal vesicles was significantly decreased in test males. The results indicate that Meswak has adverse effects on male and female reproductive system and fertility.

Previous studies showed that Persica extracts have antibacterial activity against cariogenic and periodontopathic bacteria and can develop periodontal health; however, the clinical effects of gum as a delivery device for Persica to periodontal health in human, have not yet been investigated. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of chewing gum containing Persica extract on periodontal health in a double-masked, randomized trial. From a high school in Babol, 72 cases with plaque induced moderate gingivitis were randomly assigned to the 2 weeks trial in the following groups: S+/P+ (n = 18): use of Persica extract chewing gum for 2 weeks and two sessions of scaling; S+/P- (n = 18): use of placebo chewing gum two sessions of scaling; S-/P+ (n = 18): use of Persica extract chewing gum; and S-/P- (n = 18): use of placebo chewing gum. Plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), and bleeding index (BI), were measured at days 0, 7, and 14. Data was analyzed with t test or Mann-Whitney U test. Seven patients from Persica scaling group and five patients from Persica no scaling (S-/P+) group were excluded for complaining about the taste and irritation. The effects of extract chewing gum was statistically significant in reduction of GI, and BI but not for PI in Persica groups compared with the placebo groups in the days of 7 and 14 after the beginning of trial. Persica extract chewing gum had a considerable effect on GI, and BI. The use of Salvadora persica extract chewing gum may promote periodontal health.

Infrared and atomic emission spectroscopic techniques were used in the study of the organic and inorganic structure and composition of salvadora persica. The results showed than the organic part of the sticks of salvadora persica consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. The lignin content in the pulp is higher than its content in the outer layers. The inorganic part of the samples except that from El-Teif consists mainly of anhydrous CaSO 4 . For the sample from El-Teif it consists of phosphate compound. The atomic emission spectroscopy indicated that the concentration of elements varies from sample to sample according to the regions of the samples. For example, Ca exists in major amounts in all samples except in the sample of El-Teif where it exists as a minor amount.

Nine herbal powders were tested against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood (Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae) under greenhouse conditions. The herbal powders were collected from Gezira State, Sudan. Herbal powders were used without extraction to simplify the application by farmers. Most of the herbal powders were effective in controlling M. incognita in the soil compared to the control. Some treatments (e.g., Acacia nilotica (L.), Argemone mexicana L., and Azadirachta indica A. Juss) had statistically lower Root Knot Index (RNI) than the control. The number of juveniles per 100 g soil was lower in soil amended with Dinbera retroflexa (Vahl), Azadirachta indica , Salvadora persica (L . ), and Acacia nilotica than in unamended soil. The results of both RNI and number of juveniles were not significantly different from the synthetic nematicide used. Herbal powders from A . indica and Acacia nilotica may be promising in controlling of this pest because they are readily available to farmers in tropical regions.

Summary In previous work we observed that the decoction of Salvadora persica L. possessed significant protective action against ethanol and stress-induced ulcers. This study was designed to confirm the antiulcer activity of Salvadora persica decoction using optical microscopy. The elements of gastric mucosa tended to be reestablished normally in treated rats.

Summary Salvadora persica L. grows on the Eastern shore of the Sinai peninsula in a prostrate form giving rise to the formation of sand hillocks. It is described how branches of the tree are prepared for the use as toothbrush by the Bedouin. The anatomical structure of the branches predisposes them for their use as a toothbrush. Bundles composed of vessels embedded in a tissue of thick walled xylem fibres are separated from each other by thin walled xylem parenchyma with included phloem. When beaten these soft tissues are destroyed and the remaining strands of xylem fibres and vessels form the bristles of the toothbrush.