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Neurocysticercosis is one of the most common parasitic infections in the central nervous system in children. The usual clinical manifestation is new-onset focal seizure. However, there are other multiple clinical manifestations, such as increased intracranial pressure, meningoencephalitis, spinal cord syndrome, and blindness. The diagnosis needs high index of suspicion with clinical history, physical examination, neuroimaging, and immunologic studies. Recent advances in neuroimaging and serology facilitate the accurate diagnosis. Management of neurocysticercosis should focus on critical symptoms first, such as the use of antiepileptic drugs and medical or surgical therapy for increased intracranial pressure.

Background The European General Food Law (Regulation No 178/2002) declares that risk analysis should be the basis of food legislation to achieve a high level of protection of human health. Concerning meat safety, the food chain information (FCI) set down by Regulation No 853/2004 is a very important tool that is required for animals admitted to slaughter. To properly integrate FCI, harmonised epidemiological indicators (HEIs) have been proposed by EFSA for high priority risks and risks that might emerge in the future. Scope and approach In the pig meat chain, the HEIs within meat inspection cover Salmonella spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spp., Taenia solium and mycobacteria. Nevertheless, ten years after the HEIs specification were published, only two biological hazards (Trichinella and Salmonella) are included in official control programs in the EU countries. While Trichinella monitoring is mandatory, Salmonella control plans have been implemented by some countries only. Key findings and conclusions In countries where Salmonella in pigs is monitored at farm level, the status of the farm is described in the FCI. This information is crucial for the risk manager to organise slaughter operations and implement hygienic measures, as well as for the competent authorities to properly follow inspection procedures and additional controls according to Regulation No 2019/627. Since FCI needs to enable forward and backward flow of information on animal and public health hazards between all operators involved in pig husbandry and pig meat production, its implementation with HEIs will allow risk-based decision making in food safety.

In the past 50 years, enormous progress has been made in the diagnosis, treatment and control of taeniid cestode infections/diseases and in the scientific understanding thereof. Most interest in this group of parasites stems from the serious diseases that they cause in humans. It is through this lens that we summarize here the most important breakthroughs that have made a difference to the treatment of human diseases caused by these parasites, reduction in transmission of the taeniid species associated with human disease, or understanding of the parasites’ biology likely to impact diagnosis or treatment in the foreseeable future. Key topics discussed are the introduction of anti-cestode drugs, including benzimidazoles and praziquantel, and the development of new imaging modalities that have transformed the diagnosis and post-treatment monitoring of human echinococcoses and neurocysticercosis. The availability of new anti-cestode drugs for use in dogs and a detailed understanding of the transmission dynamics of Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato have underpinned successful programs that have eliminated cystic echinococcosis in some areas of the world and greatly reduced the incidence of infection in others. Despite these successes, cystic and alveolar echinococcosis and neurocysticercosis continue to be prevalent in many parts of the world, requiring new or renewed efforts to prevent the associated taeniid infections. Major advances made in the development of practical vaccines against E. granulosus and Taenia solium will hopefully assist in this endeavour, as might the understanding of the parasites’ biology that have come from an elucidation of the nuclear genomes of each of the most important taeniid species causing human diseases.

The endangered Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is a keystone species playing an essential role in ecology as well as in the social and spiritual lives of the Himalayan people. The latest estimate of the Bengal tiger population in Bhutan accounts for 103 individuals. Infectious organisms, including zoonotic parasites causing high burden in human health, have received little attention as a cause of mortality in tigers. Taeniosis/cysticercosis, caused by the cestode Taenia solium, is considered one of the major neglected tropical diseases in Southeast Asia. We present here a case of neurocysticercosis in a Bengal tiger showing advanced neurological disease outside Thimphu, the capital city of Bhutan. After palliative care, the animal died, and necropsy revealed multiple small cysts in the brain. Here we show the presence of two genetic variants of T. solium in the parasite material collected based on PCR and sequencing of the complete cox1 and cytB genes. The sequences form a discrete branch within the Asia plus Madagascar cluster of the parasite. On other hand, tests for feline morbillivirus, feline calicivirus, canine distemper virus, Nipah, rabies, Japanese encephalitis, feline leukaemia and feline immunodeficiency virus were negative. In contrast, PCR for feline herpesvirus was positive and a latex agglutination test revealed an elevated antibody titer against Toxoplasma gondii (titer 1:256). The molecular examination of taeniid eggs isolated from the tiger faeces produced sequences for which the highest homology in GenBank is between 92% and 94% with T. regis and T. hydatigena. This fatal case of T. solium neurocysticercosis, a disease previously unrecorded in tigers or other non-domestic felids, demonstrates an anthropogenically driven transmission of a deadly pathogen which could become a serious threat to the tiger population., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • This is the first report of a fatal infection with Taenia solium in a Bengal tiger. • There is a need for research into infectious disease threats to tigers in Bhutan. • The importance of a ‘One Health’ approach is demonstrated and recommended. • Non-domestic felids.

Background Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is the commonest parasitic infection of the central nervous system. There is significant difference in incidence of NCC depending on geographic location, and incidence as high as 4% is reported in the endemic areas. It results from human affliction by the larval stage of Taenia solium. Spinal NCC is quite rare as compared with cranial NCC and accounts for 1.5%–3% of all cases. Both spine and cranium can be rarely involved in NCC, and cranial involvement usually precedes the spinal involvement. Case Description We report a case of a 51-year-old woman who had spinal involvement first in the form of spinal intradural extramedullary disease and then developed cranial involvement more than 1 year later. She developed spinal arachnoiditis. She developed communicating hydrocephalous requiring ventriculoperitoneal shunt. Later she developed isolated fourth ventricle and required excision of the fourth ventricular NCC. The unique aspects of our patient were a very aggressive course and involvement of cranium after spinal involvement. We describe her clinical course over 3 years and the management done. Conclusions NCC can sometimes follow a very aggressive course and can involve both cranial and spinal compartments. Management of such patients is not standardized given the rarity of such cases.

Zoonotic taeniasis caused by the adult stage of Taenia solium, Taenia saginata or Taenia asiatica are considered neglected tropical diseases by the World Health Organization. The life cycle of these 3 metazoan species is very similar and includes an intermediate host: pigs in the case of T. solium and T. asiatica, and cattle in the case of T. saginata. By eating meat (pork/T. solium, T. asiatica; beef/T. saginata) containing live cysticerci, humans develop taeniasis, which is practically asymptomatic but is the main risk factor for intermediate hosts to become infected. T. saginata causes bovine cysticercosis, while T. solium and T. asiatica cause swine cysticercosis, of veterinary and economic importance. T. solium cysticerci cause neurological disease in humans: neurocysticercosis. Cysticerci develop after ingesting microscopic eggs released from a human tapeworm carrier. Here we describe the life stages of the parasites, diagnosis, pathogenesis, symptomatology of neurocysticercosis, and prevention and control measures. Highlighting the need to validate diagnostic tools, treatments and vaccination in endemic areas, with the challenge of addressing the most vulnerable populations that lack resources. If people understand the transmission route, avoid eating uncooked or insufficiently cooked meat and have adequate hygienic habits, the life cycle of the 3 zoonotic Taenia species may be interrupted. In addition, we describe the growing field of immune response and immunomodulation elicited by the parasites, which may provide essential tools for diagnosis, treatment, control of taeniasis/cysticercosis, as well as for identification of parasite-derived immunomodulators that could aid in the treatment of emerging inflammatory diseases worldwide.

Highlights • Diagnosis and treatment of cerebral peduncle neurocysticercosis have always been a challenge. • This challenge is exacerbated in the context of Vietnam, a resource-restricted environment. • Total resection of the cerebral peduncle neurocysticercosis was adequate when the patient had localized neurological deficits., Background Diagnosis and treatment of neurocysticercosis have always been a challenge, especially in Vietnam, a resource-restricted environment. Here, we reported successful surgical management of cerebral peduncle neurocysticercosis. Presentation of case A 65-year-old man with no medical history complained of headache and progressive right-sided hemiparesis for one month prior to admission. On examination, his muscle strength was 3/5 (Frankel grade) with positive Hoffmann and Babinski’s signs on the right side. His brain’s magnetic resonance imaging suggested a cystic brain tumor (29 × 18 mm) situated in the left cerebral peduncle and hypothalamus region. Enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISA) of serum for Cysticercus cellulosae, Echinococcus, Toxocara, and Amebiasis were negative. The operation was performed with the modified frontotemporal-orbitozygomatic approach. We extirpated both the cysts. Histopathological examination revealed the larva of Taenia solium. Postoperatively, the hemiplegia was completely recovered, and no complication was reported Discussion The most recent revised diagnostic criteria of neurocysticercosis emphasised that neuroimaging studies play the most crucial role while clinical manifestations and exposure criteria were only indirect proofs of neurocysticercosis. Neuroimaging and clinical evidence in this patient, however, were more suggestive of cystic brain tumor, which was our most likely preoperative diagnosis. Consequently, total tumor resection required for both histopathological examination and alleviating his hemiplegia. Conclusions Preoperative diagnosis of neurocysticercosis has always been a challenge. Total resection of the cerebral peduncle neurocysticercosis was adequate when the patient had localized neurological deficits.

The presentation of cysticercosis is very heterogeneous both between and within countries. Several host and parasite factors are involved in this heterogeneity. Differences in the intensity of infection pressure have not been studied thus far. We have compiled data that could demonstrate that differences in infection pressure are involved in the still high prevalence of parenchymal neurocysticercosis and ocular cysticercosis in some countries (which have a stable infection pressure) and in the high proportion of extraparenchymal neurocysticercosis in others (which have had a progressive decrease in infection pressure). Therefore, the distribution of clinicoradiological forms of cysticercosis could be a marker of the intensity of infection pressure and could help to determine in which countries control programs should be a priority.

Changes in the incidence of porcine cysticercosis is used commonly in the assessment of efforts to control the transmission of Taenia solium, the cause of human neurocysticercosis. Although cysticerci may occasionally occur in tissues other than the striated muscles, particularly the brain, infection in pigs can be diagnosed reliably by assessment of muscle tissue alone.

Infections causes by parasites of the gastrointestinal tract are a global public health problem. In industrialised countries, their particular epidemiological (low general prevalence of enteroparasites), economic (high labour costs) and clinical characteristics (constant increase in the number of samples and diagnostic determinations to be performed) have led molecular techniques to progressively replace conventional microscopy as the first-line diagnostic method of these pathogens in modern clinical laboratories. PCR-based techniques, particularly those developed for the simultaneous detection of the various agents that can cause the same infectious disease (syndromic diagnosis), already represent a cost-effective option that allow process automisation, workflow optimisation, and comparison of results among different laboratories, and facilitate accreditation of diagnostic procedures. This review clearly and concisely discusses the current situation of the molecular diagnosis of the main species of intestinal parasites in humans, particularly the enteric protozoans causing diarrhoea (Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Entamoeba histolytica), the most important members the Microsporidia phyla (Enterocytozoon bieneusi) and Stramenopiles phyla (Blastocystis sp.), as well as the helminths transmitted by soil (Ancylostoma spp., Ascaris lumbricoides, Necator americanus, Strongyloides stercoralis and Trichuris trichiura) and food (Anisakis spp., Clonorchis sinensis, Fasciola spp., Taenia solium, and Trichinella spiralis). Special attention is paid to the description of available techniques and formats, to their diagnostic benefits and the most widely used genetic markers for their detection, both in clinical laboratories and genotyping in referral and research centres.

Neurocysticercosis is one of the most common causes of acquired epilepsy worldwide. Caused by Taenia solium, the infection uses pigs as an intermediate host and thus is often associated with proximity to and consumption of pigs.This review explores the epidemiology of neurocysticercosis in endemic regions across Africa, Asia, and Latin America and examines common risk factors in these areas.A literature review was conducted using pubmed to search for articles with key words including neurocysticercosis, Taenia, solium, epidemiology, and the names of countries and continents in the regions of interest.Multiple risk factors for neurocysticercosis were identified, including inadequate regulation of pig farms and food safety, poor sanitation, and water contamination. In addition, additional barriers to appropriate diagnosis and management were found, including resource limitations and poor health literacy.Despite its global prevalence, effective limitation of neurocysticercosis is still achievable through projects which address common risk factors.

Objectives: As is the case for all of Southeast Europe, Serbia is an area traditionally endemic for Taenia saginata and Taenia solium infections. This study was performed to analyse the epidemiological data on taeniosis and cysticercosis in Serbia for the period 1990–2018. Methods: Data on cases of T. saginata and T. solium infection were collected via a systematic search of published articles, the grey literature, and official reports, as well as by performing clinical observational studies of patients treated in the departments for infectious diseases of hospitals and university clinics in Serbia. Results: A total of 212 cases of taeniosis were reported, all between 1997 and 2004 when taeniosis was notifiable (incidence range 0.04–0.9/100 000 population/year). From 1990 to 2018, 170 cases of cysticercosis (all but one of neurocysticercosis), were registered (incidence range 0–0.29/100 000 population/year), with a strong decrease since 2000 and a single case in the last 9 years. The annual number of cases of both taeniosis (Pearson’s r = 0.914, p = 0.001) and cysticercosis (Pearson’s r = 0.582, p = 0.014) correlated with the consumer price index. Conclusions: In Serbia, T. saginata and T. solium infections are autochthonous but occur only sporadically. However, the potential for re-emergence exists, depending on the socio-economic state of the country. Keywords: Taenia saginata, Taenia solium, Taeniosis, Cysticercosis, Epidemiology, Serbia

The cystiSim model was used to compare strategies for the control of Taenia solium. A three-monthly intervention in pigs for 3 years was substantially more effective than biannual treatment for taeniasis in the human population for 5 years. The intervention period could be shortened further by combining pig and human interventions.

Neurocysticercosis is an infection of the central nervous system by the larval stage of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium. The combination of modern diagnostic tests, use of antiparasitic drugs, improved anti-inflammatory treatments, and minimally invasive neurosurgery has improved outcomes in patients with neurocysticercosis. This parasitic infection is complex in both the clinical presentation and the treatment approach, which depends on the number of cysts, location in the brain, stage of degeneration, and host inflammatory response. Therapeutic interventions for each location are different; therefore, principles for managing parenchymal disease cannot be applied to extraparenchymal disease and should be individualized.

There is a large body of evidence suggesting that parasites could be a major preventable risk factor for epilepsy in low- and middle-income countries. We review potentially important substrates for epileptogenesis in parasitic diseases. Taenia solium is the most widely known parasite associated with epilepsy, and the risk seems determined mainly by the extent of cortical involvement and the evolution of the primary cortical lesion to gliosis or to a calcified granuloma. For most parasites, however, epileptogenesis is more complex, and other favorable host genetic factors and parasite-specific characteristics may be critical. In situations where cortical involvement by the parasite is either absent or minimal, parasite-induced epileptogenesis through an autoimmune process seems plausible. Further research to identify important markers of epileptogenesis in parasitic diseases will have huge implications for the development of trials to halt or delay onset of epilepsy.

Human and porcine cysticercosis is endemic in West Africa, where epilepsy is relatively common, but rarely reported due to fear of stigmatization. Neurocysticercosis, caused by Taenia solium, tends to affect the poor in developing countries and control is hampered by inadequate infrastructure and financial resources coupled with lack of adequate information about its significance and distribution. The risk factors for human cysticercosis are closely associated with the characteristics of smallholder or backyard pig farming systems prevalent in this region. Poverty, ignorance and lack of political will militate against successful eradication, while tools for effective diagnosis, prevention and treatment, including vaccines for pigs, are not yet available in many countries. Cysticercosis was targeted for control by The World Health Organization global plan for 2008–2015; however, measures for control are yet to be undertaken in a coordinated manner in West Africa. Diagnostic tools, including neuroimaging facilities, should be strategically situated and made accessible to rural populations in West Africa. Community education in combination with a multipronged approach consisting of vaccination of pigs using TSOL18 vaccine and treatment with oxfendazole along with mass chemotherapy of humans with praziquantel could eliminate taeniasis and should be considered. In-depth and extensive epidemiological studies are required in West Africa in order to fully elucidate the prevalence of T. solium and to support more coordinated and effective control of human and porcine cysticercosis.

This study investigated the magnitude of porcine cysticercosis (PC), its risk factors, economic effects and the perceptions of 80 pig farmers from Nyabimata (n = 38) and Muganza (n = 42) and 20 registered butchers in the Nyaruguru district of Rwanda. January to December 2013 slaughter records from Kamirabagenzi market were also analysed for PC diagnoses based on the tongue test and meat inspection. During this period, the responding farmers' records showed a tongue test-based PC magnitude (3.9%, n = 984) which was lower than the collective tongue test-based PC magnitude of 9.2% (n = 1720) at Kamirabagenzi (p .05). The overall magnitude of PC based on routine meat inspection diagnosis at Kamirabagenzi was 4%. The overall magnitude of PC for respondents using Free-range production systems (7.9%) was significantly greater than for those in Semi-intensive (2.1%) and Intensive production systems (1.5%) (p .05). Though most farmers (90%) knew that PC is zoonotic, only 22.5% of the farmers opted for treatment of PC-infected pigs and 52.5% were willing to seek veterinary inspection while the rest (25%) opted to circumvent veterinary inspection (P .05). Most butchers (70%) indicated they would circumvent veterinary inspection and continue to slaughter PC-positive animals whilst the rest (30%) indicated they would resell PC positive animals to defray costs (P .05). The low sensitivity and specificity of methods used for PC detection in the study, implies that this may just be the tip of an iceberg and the actual magnitude is most likely to be much higher. In conclusion, PC is endemic in the Nyaruguru district of Rwanda with a high proportion of positive animals. The condition has public health implications and is worsening the economic plight of the impoverished Nyaruguru community.

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a zoonotic parasitosis caused by larvae of the fox tapeworm, Echinococcus multilocularis. E. multilocularis is distributed widely in the Northern hemisphere, causing serious health problems in various animals and humans. E. multilocularis, like other cestodes, lacks a digestive tract and absorbs essential nutrients, including glucose, across the syncytial tegument on its external surface. Therefore, it is hypothesized that E. multilocularis uses glucose transporters on its surface similar to a closely-related species, Taenia solium. Based on this hypothesis, we cloned and characterized glucose transporter homologues from E. multilocularis. As a result, we obtained full-length sequences of 2 putative glucose transporter genes (EmGLUT1 and EmGLUT2) from E. multilocularis. In silico analysis predicted that these were classified in the solute carrier family 2 group. Functional expression analysis using Xenopus oocytes demonstrated clear uptake of 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) by EmGLUT1, but not by EmGLUT2 in this experimental system. EmGLUT1 was shown to have relatively high glucose transport activity. Further analyses using the Xenopus oocyte system revealed that 2-DG uptake of EmGLUT1 did not depend on the presence or concentration of Na+ nor H+, respectively. Immunoblot analyses using cultured metacestode, ex vivo protoscolex, and adult worm samples demonstrated that both EmGLUTs were stably expressed during each developmental stage of the parasite. Based on the above-mentioned findings, we conclude that EmGLUT1 is a simple facilitated glucose transporter and possibly plays an important role in glucose uptake by E. multilocularis throughout its life cycle.

Objective Discordances between imaging findings of parenchymal neurocysticercosis and seizure expression have been reported, and as such the possibility that neurocysticercosis and seizures may frequently coexist by chance has been raised. In this study, we evaluate the topographic relationship between seizure foci based on semiology and electroencephalography with the location of parenchymal neurocysticercotic lesions. Methods Seizure information, neuroimaging (computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) and electroencephalographic data from three randomized clinical trials of individuals with parenchymal neurocysticercosis and focal seizures were analyzed. Blinded epileptologists defined a potential seizure onset zone and a symptomatogenic zone for each individual based on semiology. The topographic relationship between semiology, either lesion location or areas of perilesional edema on baseline MRI, and electroencephalographic abnormalities were assessed. Results Fifty-eight patients with one or two parenchymal neurocysticercotic lesions were included in this study. From them, 50 patients (86%; 95% CI, 75%–93%) showed a clinical-topography relationship with the potential seizure onset zone, and 44 (76%) also with the symptomatogenic zone. From the eight patients with no topographic relationship, five had focal seizures 30 days before or after the baseline MRI and showed perilesional edema. All of these five patients showed a clinical-topography relationship between such seizures and an area of perilesional edema, making a total of 55 patients (95%; 95% CI, 85%–99%) with clinical-topography relationship when perilesional edema is considered. Most patients with focal epileptiform discharges (7/8, 88%) had a topographic association between electroencephalographic focality, the potential seizure onset zone and a cysticercotic lesion. Conclusion Seizure semiology and focal epileptiform discharges are topographically related to neurocysticercotic lesions in most patients. These data strongly support seizure origin in the cortex surrounding these lesions.

This study was conducted to evaluate effectiveness of an integrated management intervention in the control of endo- and ectoparasites of pigs kept by smallholder farmers in Mbeya Rural and Mbozi districts of southern highlands of Tanzania. A repeated cross-sectional group randomization design was employed, with 10 villages in the intervention group and six villages in the control group. The intervention consisted of improving pig confinement, feeds and feeding practices, and strategic anthelmintic treatment of pigs with oxfendazole, to primarily control Taenia solium (porcine) cysticercosis and nematodes; and with ivermectin to control ectoparasites and nematodes. Blood and faecal samples, ectoparasite specimens and skin scrapings were collected at baseline and two follow-up rounds, at an interval of seven months. A total of 482, 460 and 421 pigs were sampled in 221, 196 and 139 households at baseline, first and second follow-up visits respectively. Sero-prevalence of PC, prevalence and burden of gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes and prevalence of ectoparasites were determined using Ag-ELISA, McMaster faecal egg counting technique and body searches/skin scrapings, respectively. Mann Whitney test was used to measure intervention effect by comparing changes from baseline values of prevalence and faecal egg counts between the two groups. No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed between the two groups, in changes from baseline of sero-prevalence of PC. The intervention significantly reduced prevalence of Trichuris suis (p = 0.044) and mean faecal egg counts of Ascaris suum (p = 0.02) from baseline to first follow-up. The intervention showed a substantial effect on the prevalence of ectoparasites as it significantly reduced overall prevalence of ectoparasites (p = 0.026), lice (p = 0.045), ticks (p = 0.049) and mites (p = 0.013) from baseline to first follow-up, and prevalence of ectoparasites, lice and mites from baseline to second follow-up (p = 0.052, p = 0.03, p = 0.017 respectively). This study has demonstrated a moderate effect of the intervention on controlling GI nematodes and ectoparasites, but no effect on sero-prevalence of PC. The reported ineffectiveness of the intervention against PC is probably an underestimation because serology is not able to provide quantitative data. It may also be a result of reduced compliance as this was a field study. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to better understand transmission dynamics of PC and explore One Health approaches including treatment of the human population against taeniosis to better secure public health.

Cysticercosis is a worldwide parasitic disease of humans and pigs principally caused by infection with the larvae of the pork tapeworm Taenia solium. Through the use of the recently-made-available T. solium genome, we identified a gene within a novel 1448 bp ORF that theoretically encodes for a 433 amino acid-long protein and predicted to be an α-enolase closely related to enolases of other flatworms. Additional bioinformatic analyses revealed a putative plasminogen-binding region on this protein, suggesting a potential role for this protein in pathogenesis. On this basis, we isolated the mRNA encoding for this presumptive enolase from T. solium metacestodes and reverse-transcribed it into cDNA before subsequently cloning and expressing it in both E. coli (rEnoTs) and insect cells (rEnoTsBac), in a 6xHis tagged manner. The molecular weights of these two recombinant proteins were ∼48 and ∼50 kDa, respectively, with the differences likely attributable to differential glycosylation. We used spectrophotometric assays to confirm the enolase nature of rEnoTs as well as to measure its enzymatic activity. The resulting estimates of specific activity (60.000 U/mg) and Km (0.091 mM) are quite similar to the catalytic characteristics of enolases of other flatworms. rEnoTs also exhibited high immunogenicity, eliciting a strong polyclonal antibody response in immunized rabbits. We subsequently employed rEnoTsBac for use in an ELISA aimed at discriminating between healthy pigs and those infected with T. solium. This diagnostic assay exhibited a sensitivity of 88.4% (95% CI, 74.92%–96.11%) and a specificity of 83.7% (95% CI: 69.29%–93.19%). In conclusion, this study reports on and enzymatically characterizes a novel enolase from T. solium metacestode, and shows a potential use as an immunodiagnostic for porcine cysticercosis.

The larval stage of Taenia solium (cysticerci) is the causal agent of human and swine cysticercosis. When ingested by the host, T. solium eggs are activated and hatch in the intestine, releasing oncospheres that migrate to various tissues and evolve into cysticerci. Plasminogen (Plg) receptor proteins have been reported to play a role in migration processes for several pathogens. This work is aimed to identify Plg-binding proteins in T. solium cysticerci and determine whether T. solium recombinant enolase (rTsEnoA) is capable of specifically binding and activating human Plg. To identify Plg-binding proteins, a 2D-SDS-PAGE ligand blotting was performed, and recognized spots were identified by MS/MS. Seven proteins from T. solium cysticerci were found capable of binding Plg: fascicilin-1, fasciclin-2, enolase, MAPK, annexin, actin, and cytosolic malate dehydrogenase. To determine whether rTsEnoA binds human Plg, a ligand blotting was performed and the results were confirmed by ELISA both in the presence and absence of εACA, a competitive Plg inhibitor. Finally, rTsEnoA-bound Plg was activated to plasmin in the presence of tPA. To better understand the evolution of enolase isoforms in T. solium, a phylogenetic inference analysis including 75 enolase amino acid sequences was conducted. The origin of flatworm enolase isoforms, except for Eno4, is independent of their vertebrate counterparts. Therefore, herein we propose to designate tapeworm protein isoforms as A, B, C, and 4. In conclusion, recombinant enolase showed a strong plasminogen binding and activating activity in vitro. T. solium enolase could play a role in parasite invasion along with other plasminogen-binding proteins.

Cysticercosis is the infection by the larval stage of Taenia solium. This disease can affect multiple human organs, most commonly the central nervous system, subcutaneous tissue and muscles. When myocardial is involved, the patient is usually asymptomatic, but we report Cardiac Cysticercosis as a cause of myocardial infarction.

Enolase (EC 4.2.1.11) acts as a multifunctional enzyme in many organisms, being involved in metabolism, transcription regulation and pathogenesis. In the current study, the recombinant α-enolase from Taenia solium (His-Tseno) was prepared and antiserum against His-Tseno was generated in rabbits. Consequently, we analyzed the enzymatic characteristics, plasminogen binding activity, tissue localization and expression patterns of Tseno. The study demonstrated that the enzymatic activity of His-Tseno was enhanced at pH around 7.0–7.5 and affected by addition of metal ions. Kinetic measurements using 2-phospho- d -glycerate (2-PGA) substrates gave a specific activity of 60.72 ± 0.84 U/mg and 1.1 mM of Km2-PGA value. Plasminogen binding assay showed that His-Tseno could bind to human plasminogen and generate plasmin activated by a tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA). In addition, the lysine analogue 6-aminocaproic acid (e-ACA) could inhibit the binding of plasminogen to His-Tseno. Quantitative real-time PCR confirmed that Tseno was expressed 2.38 folds higher in the adult worms (p

The tapeworm Taenia solium is endemic in Zambia, however its socioeconomic cost is unknown. During a large-scale interventional study conducted in Zambia, baseline economic costs of human and porcine T. solium infections were measured. Questionnaire surveys were conducted within three neighbourhoods in Zambia's Eastern province in 2015 and 2016. A human health questionnaire, capturing costs of clinical symptoms commonly attributable to human cysticercosis and taeniasis, was conducted in randomly selected households (n = 267). All pig-keeping households were administered a pig socioeconomic questionnaire (n = 271) that captured pig demographic data, costs of pig-keeping, and economic losses from porcine cysticercosis. Of all respondents 62% had reportedly experienced at least one of the surveyed symptoms. Seizure-like episodes were reported by 12%, severe chronic headaches by 36%, and vision problems by 23% of respondents. These complaints resulted in 147 health care consultations and 17 hospitalizations in the five years preceding the study, and an estimated productivity loss of 608 working days per year. Of all pigs 69% were bought within villages. Nearly all adult pigs were sold to local traders, and tongue palpation for detection of cysticerci was commonly performed. Reportedly, 95% of pig owners could not sell tongue-positive pigs, while infected pigs fetched only 45% of the normal sale value. These preliminary costing data indicate that human and porcine T. solium infections substantially impact endemic areas of Eastern Zambia. A full socioeconomic burden assessment may enable improved T. solium management in sub-Saharan Africa.

Low cost vaccines against cysticercosis are needed to fight this parasitosis, especially in developing countries. Herein polycistron arrangements were designed to accomplish the simultaneous expression of multiple protective antigens from Taenia solium in the plant cell as an attractive biofactory and delivery vehicle of vaccines. Transplastomic plants carrying synthetic polycistrons were able to simultaneously express the KETc1, KETc7, KETc12, GK1, and TSOL18/HP6-Tsol antigens; which retained their antigenicity and ability to induce humoral responses in BALB/c mice. These clones may be useful for the production of low-cost cysticercosis vaccine prototypes.

Introduction and importance Neurocysticercosis is the most common parasitic infection of the nervous system and it is mostly intracranial. Intradural intramedullary or extramedullary is the rarest involvement of intraspinal cysticercosis. Its isolated involvement is even rare, as it usually has intracranial association. We aim to report a rare case of isolated intraspinal neurocysticercosis and discuss the measures we can take for early management. Despite being an eradicable disease of public health importance, its prevalence is increasing widely in developed countries too. Therefore, we aim to discuss its pathogenesis, mode of spread, and preventive aspects as well. Presentation of case A 40-year-old woman presented to our hospital with pain over the lower back region radiating to the right thigh. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of her lumbosacral spine revealed a cystic lesion at the spinal level L5-S1. We confirmed the diagnosis via Histopathological examination (HPE) following surgery. Discussion Isolated intradural neurocysticercosis of the spine is extraordinarily rare involvement. It is caused by the larval stage of taenia solium. An MRI is the preferred imaging modality. Due to rarity and nonspecific clinic-radiological findings, diagnosis may often be missed. In our case, MRI revealed a cystic lesion at the L5-S1 level of the spine and multiple cystic lesions at the level were found intra-operatively. Its diagnosis is confirmed by HPE. Treatment can be medical or surgical according to the severity of the disease. Conclusion Although rare, neurocysticercosis can cause irreversible neurological damage. Therefore, surgeons should consider it in the differential diagnosis of intraspinal lesions., Highlights • The isolated involvement of neurocysticercosis is extraordinary as it usually associates with cerebral neurocysticercosis. • Due to the rare nature and nonspecific clinic-radiological findings, its diagnosis is often missed. • Although an eradicable disease, its prevalence is increasing widely. Thus, we aim to address its preventive aspects as well. • Surgery is recommended in case of progressive neurological symptoms otherwise conservative management is recommended.

Global distributions of zoonotic pathogens have been strongly affected by the history of human dispersal and domestication of livestock. The pork tapeworm Taenia solium is distributed worldwide as the cause of neurocysticercosis, one of the most serious neglected tropical diseases. T. solium has been reported in Indonesia but only endemic to restricted areas such as Bali and Papua. Previous studies indicated the distinctiveness of a mitochondrial haplotype confirmed in Papua, but only one isolate has been examined to date. In this study, genetic characterization of T. solium and pigs in Bali and Papua was conducted to clarify the distributional history of the parasite. Mitochondrial haplotype network analysis clearly showed that Indonesian T. solium comprises a unique haplogroup which was the first to diverge among Asian genotypes, indicating its single origin and the fact that it was not introduced in the recent past from other area in Asia in which it is endemic. Although phylogenetic analysis based on the mitochondrial D-loop revealed multiple origins of pigs in Bali and Papua, the majority of pigs belonged to the Pacific Clade, which is widely dispersed throughout the Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) and Oceania due to Neolithic human dispersal. Given the results of our network analysis, it is likely that the Pacific Clade pigs played a key role in the dispersal of T. solium. The data suggest that T. solium was introduced from mainland Asia into Western Indonesia, including Bali, by modern humans in the late Pleistocene, or in the early to middle Holocene along with the Pacific Clade pigs. Introduction into New Guinea most likely occurred in the late Holocene through the spread of Pacific Clade pigs. Over time, T. solium has been eradicated from most of Indonesia through the middle to modern ages owing to religious and cultural practices.

Porcine cysticercosis (PC) caused by Taenia solium larvae is continuing being important zoonotic disease in many developing countries. It poses a serious public health risk and leads to economic losses to pig production industry. This study was carried out to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with PC transmission in Nyasa District. To establish the prevalence of PC, a cross-sectional survey was conducted involving 698 pigs by tongue examination, 330 pigs by Ag-ELISA test and 22 pigs by meat inspection. A questionnaire survey was administered to a member of selected households to gather information on pig management and other potential factors that could explain the prevalence of PC in the area. Results showed that 44 pigs were positive by tongue examination (6.3%, 95% C.I. 4.5–8.1%), 110 tested positive for Ag-ELISA (33.3%, 95% C.I. 28.22–38.38%) and meat inspection detected four infected pigs (18.2%, 95% C.I. 2.08–34.32%). Risk factors associated with PC transmission in Nyasa District were free ranging of pigs (p = 0001), sex of pig (p = 0.011), source of pork (p = 0.0001) and outdoor defecation (0.0001). The present findings indicate that PC is endemic in Nyasa District and that free-ranging of pigs in conjunction with limited use of latrines contributes significantly to PC transmission. Therefore, mandatory pig confinement, together with use of latrine/toilets should be considered in controlling PC in Nyasa District.

Antiparasitic agents against Taenia solium cysticercosis have been in use since 1979, although its use has been questioned on the basis that cysts would die naturally and thus treatment-induced inflammation is unnecessary. In addition, isolated reports have also questioned whether neurocysticercosis (NCC) is a cause of epilepsy. After more than three and a half decades, a large body of evidence is available. Little if any doubt exists about NCC as a cause of seizures - NCC is consistently associated with seizures when appropriate groups are compared, and in a large subset of cases, seizure semiology correlates with the anatomical location of lesions. Cyst degeneration and the subsequent inflammatory reaction increase seizure expression, although patients with non-inflamed cysts may have seizures, as do patients with long-standing, not inflamed calcified scars. Assessment of the evidence on cysticidal efficacy, safety, and the impact of cyst destruction in decreasing seizures leads to the conclusion that the benefits of antiparasitic treatment in parenchymal brain cysticercosis clearly outweigh the risks, and have provided substantive evidence of the role of NCC as a cause of seizures and epilepsy. Antiparasitic therapy should be considered a primary option in the management of patients with live or degenerating brain NCC cysts. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Neurocysticercosis and Epilepsy".

Aside from brain injury and genetic causes, there is emerging information on brain infection and inflammation as a common cause of epilepsy. Neurocysticercosis (NCC), the most common cause of epilepsy worldwide, is caused by brain cysts from the Taenia solium tapeworm. In this article, we provide a critical analysis of current and emerging information on the relationship between NCC infection and epilepsy occurrence. We searched PubMed and other databases for reports on the prevalence of NCC and incidence of epilepsy in certain regions worldwide. NCC is caused by brain cysts from the T. solium and related tapeworms. Many people with NCC infection may develop epilepsy but the rates are highly variable. MRI imaging shows many changes including localization of cysts as well as the host response to treatment. Epilepsy, in a subset of NCC patients, appears to be due to hippocampal sclerosis. Serologic and brain imaging profiles are likely diagnostic biomarkers of NCC infection and are also used to monitor the course of treatments. Limited access to these tools is a key limitation to identify and treat NCC-related epilepsy in places with high prevalence of this parasite infestation. Overall, NCC is a common infection in many patients with epilepsy worldwide. Additional clinical and animal studies could confirm common pathology of NCC as a postinfectious epilepsy that is curable.

Neglected tropical diseases caused by helminth infections currently affect millions of people worldwide. Among them, there are three tapeworm species of outstanding importance: Echinococcus granulosus, E. multilocularis, and Taenia solium, which are responsible for cystic echinococcosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and cysticercosis, respectively. Despite several attempts, there is still a need for an effective and low-cost serological diagnostic test that can be used in endemic countries. In the present work, we described an innovative bioinformatic workflow for a rational prediction of putative peptide candidates for one-step serological diagnosis of any of these infections. First, we predicted the theoretical secretome shared by the three tapeworms starting from their full reported proteomes. Then, through immunoinformatics, we identified proteins within the shared secretome displaying high antigenicity scores and bearing T cell epitopes able to bind most human MHC-II alleles. Secondly, in such proteins, we identified linear B cell epitopes without post-translational modifications, and mapped them on 3D modelled structures to visualize their antibody accessibilities. As a result, we finally suggested two antigenic peptides shared between the secretomes of the three parasite species, which could be further tested for their immunodiagnostic potential.

Neurocysticercosis is an important cause of epilepsy in many developing countries. The disease is a zoonosis caused by the cestode parasite Taenia solium. Many potential intervention strategies are available, however none has been able to be implemented and sustained. Here we predict the impact of some T. solium interventions that could be applied to prevent transmission through pigs, the parasite's natural animal intermediate host. These include minimal intervention strategies that are predicted to be effective and likely to be feasible. Logical models are presented which reflect changes in the risk that age cohorts of animals have for their potential to transmit T. solium. Interventions that include a combined application of vaccination, plus chemotherapy in young animals, are the most effective.

Graphical abstract, Highlights • Hair is a reliable matrix for measuring cortisol and DHEA concentrations in pigs. • Both steroids were lower in infected than control pigs only in segment 1. • Lean animals had significantly higher cortisol in both infected and control pigs., The aim of this study was to measure hair cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) concentrations in naturally Taenia solium infected and non-infected control pigs and assess the effect of an environmental change on the aforementioned parameters. Three hair patches were obtained from 13 T. solium infected and 15 non-infected controls sows, respectively corresponding to 3 time points (prior to, at and approximately two weeks after arrival at the research facility). Cortisol and DHEA were extracted using methanol and analysed by radio immune assay. Mean hair cortisol concentrations were significantly lower (p

Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is an important neurological disease in countries with high prevalence of Taenia solium infection and is emerging as a serious public health and economic problem. The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of NCC in Angónia district, Tete province, Mozambique based on: prevalence of human T. solium cysticercosis assessed by antigen Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (Ag-ELISA) seropositivity, history of epilepsy, and brain computed tomography (CT) scan results. A cross sectional study was conducted between September and November 2007 in Angónia district. Questionnaires and blood samples were collected from 1,723 study subjects. Brain CT-scans were carried out on 151 study subjects with confirmed history of epilepsy. A total of 77 (51.0% (95% CI, 42.7-59.2)) and 38 (25.2% (95% CI, 18.5-32.9)) subjects met the criteria for definitive and probable diagnosis of NCC, respectively. T. solium Ag-ELISA seropositivity was found in 15.5% (95% CI, 12.8-16.2) of the study subjects. The estimated life time prevalence of epilepsy was 8.8% (95% CI, 7.5-10.2). Highly suggestive lesions of NCC were found on CT-scanning in 77 (71.9%, (95% CI, 62.4-80.2)) of the seropositive and 8 (18.1%, (95% CI, 8.2-32.7)) of the seronegative study subjects, respectively. The present findings revealed a high prevalence of NCC among people with epilepsy in Angónia district. Determination of effective strategies for prevention and control of T. solium cysticercosis are necessary to reduce the burden of NCC among the affected populations.

Following confirmation that a remote village of approximately 300 inhabitants in northern Lao PDR was hyperendemic for the Neglected Tropical Disease Taenia solium, a pilot human-porcine therapeutic control intervention was implemented between October 2013 and November 2014. Mass drug administration with a three day albendazole 400mg protocol was offered to all eligible humans in October 2013 and March 2014. At these times, and again in October 2014, eligible village pigs received the anti-cysticercosis TSOL18 vaccination and an oral dose of oxfendazole anthelmintic at 30mg/kg, both repeated one month later. Community and individual human taeniasis prevalences were estimated via copro-antigen ELISA of volunteered human faecal samples prior to October 2013, and again in January 2015, in order to examine the short term impact of the intervention.

Cysticercosis caused by the larvae of Taenia solium is a serious and emerging threat to public health in the endemic areas as well as in the non-endemic areas. Neurocysticercosis, an affection of the central nervous system is a leading cause of epilepsy in endemic areas. This study was carried out to investigate human cysticercosis, taeniasis and risk factors, and also their association with epilepsy in Bangoua, west Cameroon where epilepsy is highly prevalent. Out of 384 people investigated, 12 (3.1%) exhibited antibody response against low molecular weight antigens of T. solium by ELISA. Immunoblot revealed that six persons (1.6%) were seropositive with the same antigens. Among 61 epileptic patients, only one was seropositive by immunoblot and the study did not find any statistically significant difference (P>0.05) in seropositivity to T. solium between epileptic persons (1/61, 1.6%) and non-epileptic group (5/323, 1.5%). In addition, cysticercosis was associated with households eating pork meat from pigs slaughtered at home, but not with other factors. The risk factors including pig farming, the consumption of pork meat, vegetables, and non-drinkable water were attenuated by the relatively good hygiene and pig husbandry practices of the population. No egg of Taenia was found in stool by microscopic examination. All data obtained in this study suggested that cysticercosis might not be the principal causative agent of epilepsy in this area.

Graphical abstract, Highlights • We assessed patterns of taeniasis in 24 village communities of Kimpese health zone. • Prevalence of taeniasis was very high and varied between households and villages. • Children of five to ten years were the most infected age group. • Taeniasis was not spatially correlated with porcine cysticercosis., Background Taenia solium infections are mostly endemic in less developed countries where poor hygiene conditions and free-range pig management favor their transmission. Knowledge on patterns of infections in both human and pig is crucial to design effective control strategies. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence, risk factors and spatial distribution of taeniasis in a rural area of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), in the prospect of upcoming control activities. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted in 24 villages of the health zone of Kimpese, Bas Congo Province. Individual and household characteristics, including geographical coordinates were recorded. Stool samples were collected from willing participants and analyzed using the copro-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (copro-Ag ELISA) for the detection of taeniasis. Blood samples were collected from pigs and analyzed using the B158/B60 monoclonal antibody-based antigen ELISA (sero-Ag ELISA) to detect porcine cysticercosis. Logistic regression and multilevel analysis were applied to identify risk factors. Global clustering and spatial correlation of taeniasis and porcine cysticercosis were assessed using K functions. Local clusters of both infections were identified using the Kulldorff’s scan statistic. Results A total of 4751 participants above 5 years of age (median: 23 years; IQR: 11–41) were included. The overall proportion of taeniasis positivity was 23.4% (95% CI: 22.2–24.6), ranging from 1 to 60% between villages, with a significant between-household variance of 2.43 (SE = 0.29, p

Background A unified set of criteria for neurocysticercosis (NCC) has helped to standardize its diagnosis in different settings. Methods Cysticercosis experts were convened to update current diagnostic criteria for NCC according to two principles: neuroimaging studies are essential for diagnosis, and all other information provides indirect evidence favoring the diagnosis. Recent diagnostic advances were incorporated to this revised set. Results This revised set is structured in absolute, neuroimaging and clinical/exposure criteria. Absolute criteria include: histological confirmation of parasites, evidence of subretinal cysts, and demonstration of the scolex within a cyst. Neuroimaging criteria are categorized as major (cystic lesions without scolex, enhancing lesions, multilobulated cysts, and calcifications), confirmative (resolution of cysts after cysticidal drug therapy, spontaneous resolution of single enhancing lesions, and migrating ventricular cysts on sequential neuroimaging studies) and minor (hydrocephalus and leptomeningeal enhancement). Clinical/exposure criteria include: detection of anticysticercal antibodies or cysticercal antigens by well-standardized tests, systemic cysticercosis, evidence of a household Taenia carrier, suggestive clinical manifestations, and residency in endemic areas. Besides patients having absolute criteria, definitive diagnosis can be made in those having two major neuroimaging criteria (or one major plus one confirmative criteria) plus exposure. For patients presenting with one major and one minor neuroimaging criteria plus exposure, definitive diagnosis of NCC requires the exclusion of confounding pathologies. Probable diagnosis is reserved for individuals presenting with one neuroimaging criteria plus strong evidence of exposure. Conclusions This revised set of diagnostic criteria provides simpler definitions and may facilitate its more uniform and widespread applicability in different scenarios.

The pork tapeworm, Taenia solium, causes an important economic and health burden, mainly in rural or marginalized communities of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin-America. Although improved pig rearing conditions seem to have eliminated the parasite in most Western European countries, little is known about the true endemicity status of T. solium throughout Europe. Three recent reviews indicate that autochthonous human T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis may be possible in Europe, but that current peer-reviewed literature is biased towards Western Europe. Officially reported data on porcine cysticercosis are highly insufficient. Favourable conditions for local T. solium transmission still exist in eastern parts of Europe, although the ongoing integration of the European Union is speeding up modernisation and intensification of the pig sector. Further evidence is urgently needed to fill the gaps on the European T. solium endemicity map. We urge to make human cysticercosis notifiable and to improve the reporting of porcine cysticercosis.

Taenia solium taeniasis/cysticercosis is a neglected parasitic zoonosis with significant economic and public health impacts. Control measures can be broadly grouped into community health education, improvements in hygiene and sanitary conditions, proper meat handling at household and community level, improved standards of meat inspection, pig management, treatment of individual patients and possibly human populations, and treatment and/or vaccination of porcine populations. This manuscript looks critically into currently existing control options and provides suggestions on which (combination of) tools would be most effective in the control of T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis in sub-Saharan Africa. Field data and disease transmission simulations suggest that implementation of a single intervention control strategy will not lead to a satisfactory reduction of disease morbidity or transmission. A feasible strategy to combat T. solium taeniasis/cysticercosis would include a combination of approaches focussing on both human (health education and treatment) and animal host (management, treatment and vaccination), which can vary for different communities and different geographical locations. Selection of the specific strategy depends on cost-effectiveness analyses based on solid field data, currently unavailable, though urgently needed; as well as on health priorities and resources of the country. A One Health approach involving medical, veterinary, environmental and social sectors is essential for T. solium to be controlled and eventually eliminated. Finally the success of any intervention is largely dependent on the level of societal and political acceptance, commitment and engagement.

Taenia solium (the pork tapeworm) is present in most developing countries, where it is a frequent cause of seizures and other neurological disease. Parasitic larvae invade the human brain, establish, and eventually resolve, leaving a calcified scar. While these lesions are common in endemic regions, and most of these are clinically silent, a proportion of individuals with calcified cysticerci develop seizures from these lesions, and 30-65% of these cases are associated with perilesional edema (PE), likely due to host inflammation. This manuscript summarizes the importance, characteristics, natural history, and potential prevention and treatments of symptomatic calcified neurocysticercosis (NCC).

Cysticercosis is a major zoonotic disease in many developing countries leading to substantial economic and public health impacts on affected communities. Due to a lack of updated data on T. solium cysticercosis in Burundi, the present study was carried out to determine the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis and to identify potential associated risk factors in Ngozi province. This study was conducted in Ngozi and Marangara communes of Ngozi province during January and February 2020. A multistage random sampling strategy was used. Tongue palpation was performed on pigs to diagnose cysticercosis. Randomly selected heads of pig keeping households were interviewed to assess the risk factors for porcine cysticercosis. A logistic regression model was used to analyse the main risk factors associated with porcine cysticercosis. In total, 496 pigs from 321 households distributed in 16 hills, randomly selected in Ngozi and Marangara communes were inspected. The apparent prevalence by tongue palpation in Ngozi province was 15.5% (95% CI: 12.3–18.7%). In Ngozi and in Marangara communes, the prevalence was 22.9% (95% CI: 17.7–28.2%) and 8.1% (95% CI: 4.6–11.4%), respectively. The true prevalence was estimated at 31% for the province, with a prevalence of 45.8% in Ngozi and 16.2% in Marangara commune, respectively. Pig farming systems including free ranging, tethering and penned part of the day (OR = 3.5; 95% CI: 2.1–6.1; p ≤ 0.001) and lack of meat inspection at home slaughter (OR = 2.5; 95% CI: 1.1–5.6; p = 0.019) were significant risk factors associated with porcine cysticercosis. The present findings show that porcine cysticercosis is highly endemic in Ngozi province and that pig management systems currently used in the area permit pigs to have access to human stool. Moreover, lack of meat inspection during home slaughter potentially gives the possibility for household and community members to eat infected pork. Total confinement of pigs, improved hygiene and sanitation in households, and improvement of meat inspection through awareness campaigns and overall health education of the community should be implemented to control T. solium infections.

Objective The purpose of the study was to evaluate the clinical, imaging and histopathological features of orofacial cysticercosis. Materials and method This study is a retrospective analysis of orofacial cysticercosis that was diagnosed in the Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, PGIDS, Rohtak during the period from January 2012 to December 2014. A total of 16 cases were analyzed for their clinical, imaging, histological features and management. Result From all the 16 evaluated patients 68.75% were females and 31.25% males. Age ranged from 10 years to 55 years with a mean of 25.69 years. In all the patients, the chief complaint was a nodular swelling of variable duration with a wide variation in the location. Most of the cases were diagnosed on ultrasonography alone except for one case that needed MRI. All the patients were managed medically with only five out of 16 patients requiring surgical intervention. Conclusion Cysticercosis should be included in the differential diagnosis of all the nodular swellings of head and neck region. Ultrasound is an economic, easily accessible, safe and noninvasive method that can be used with a considerable reliability in the diagnosis of cysticercosis along with histopathological examination. Clinical relevance Cysticercosis is a rare disease difficult to diagnose clinically due to nonspecific presentation and inconclusive investigations. This study, to the best of our knowledge, is the first compilation of 16 cases of orofacial cysticercosis. Dentist may play a key role in diagnosis, which may have more widespread implications.

Taenia hydatigena is a non-zoonotic cestode that has canines as definitive hosts and ruminants and pigs as intermediate hosts. In pigs, its presence causes cross-reactivity in serological testing for Taenia solium cysticercosis. Therefore, knowledge on the occurrence of T. hydatigena is paramount for validly estimating the seroprevalence of T. solium cysticercosis in pigs. In a cross-sectional abattoir study, we estimated the prevalence of T. hydatigena in pigs slaughtered in Koudougou, Burkina Faso. Carcasses of 452 pigs were examined by investigators for perceived and suspected T. hydatigena cysticercus lesions in the abdominal cavity or on the surface of abdominal organs. Routine meat inspection was performed by local inspectors to identify T. solium cysticerci. All lesions were subjected to PCR-RFLP analysis in order to differentiate Taenia spp. Additionally, individual blood samples were examined for the presence of circulating cysticercus antigens using the B158/B60 Ag-ELISA. Perceived T. hydatigena cysticerci were found in 13 pigs, whereas meat inspectors found seven carcasses infected with T. solium cysticerci. All were confirmed by molecular analysis. Of pigs with other suspected lesions, mostly located in the liver, 27 and six were found to harbour T. hydatigena and T. solium cysticerci, respectively. Overall, 8.8% of pigs (40/452) were found infected with T. hydatigena and 2.9% (13/452) with T. solium. Of these positive pigs, one was found infected with both Taenia spp. (0.2%, 1/452). Blood samples of 48.5% of pigs (219/452) were positive in the Ag-ELISA. Pigs with confirmed cysts of T. hydatigena and T. solium had a positive Ag-ELISA result in 57.5% (23/40) and 61.5% (8/13) of cases, respectively. The observed T. hydatigena prevalence in this study is relatively high in comparison to other studies in Africa. Estimates of the occurrence of active porcine T. solium infection using the B158/B60 Ag-ELISA should therefore be adjusted for the presence of T. hydatigena. The low level of T. solium infection detected upon meat inspection in this study is likely an underestimation of the true prevalence since routine meat inspection shows poor sensitivity and pigs perceived to be infected based on tongue palpation are rarely sent to official abattoirs.

Taenia hydatigena, a non-zoonotic tapeworm species shares the same intermediate hosts with other Taenia zoonotic species, such as Taenia solium in pigs and Taenia saginata in cattle. The occurrence of T. hydatigena in pigs and cattle may cause cross-reactions in immunodiagnostic tests and therefore, complicate the diagnosis of the zoonotic species. This study was conducted to systematically review the data on the prevalence of T. hydatigena in pigs and cattle, with the aim to assess the potential interference in serological diagnosis of zoonotic Taenia spp. due to T. hydatigena infection. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Africa Journal Online, website http://www.google.com and article reference lists in English, French and Vietnamese with no restriction on research time and publication status. Eligible studies included observational studies that showed the occurrence of T. hydatigena. Twenty-six studies, divided into two animal groups, i.e. pigs and cattle, met the eligibility criteria for qualitative synthesis and 17 studies were included for the meta-analysis in three continents. T. hydatigena was found by necropsy in all included studies, which mostly were abattoir surveys. Overall, results showed the worldwide occurrence of T. hydatigena cysticercosis in pigs and cattle. In pigs, there was a marked higher prevalence in Asia and South America that was 17.2% (95% CI: 10.6-26.8%) and 27.5% (CI: 20.8-35.3%), respectively, compared to a low prevalence of 3.9% (95% CI: 1.9-7.9%) in Africa. Overall, the prevalence of T. hydatigena in cattle was low with a mean of 1.1% (95% CI: 0.2-5.2%). These results show that interpretation of results of sero-diagnostic tests for zoonotic Taenia species in pigs and cattle has to take into account the prevalence of T. hydatigena infections in different settings.

The gene encoding a mature 18 kDa glycoprotein of Taenia solium cysticerci (Ts18) was cloned and bacterially expressed with a His-tagged fusion protein. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against the recombinant Ts18 antigen were generated in vitro by routine murine hybridoma technique of fusing splenocytes, from BALB/c mice immunized with the vesicular fluid of T. solium cysticerci (TsVF), with mouse myeloma cells (SP2/0). The reactivity and specificity of these MAbs were evaluated by indirect ELISA and immunoblotting techniques. Three stable hybridoma clones, namely 3B11, 6C5, and 6G4, were screened using His-Ts18-based ELISA, and these showed two IgG1 isotypes and one IgM isotype. All MAbs reacted with His-Ts18 at molecular weight (MW) 12.8 kDa and the native antigen at MW 18 kDa in TsVF and whole larval extracts (WLE). In a dot blotting test, MAbs 6C5 and 6G4 showed no obvious cross-reactivity with heterologous vesicular fluids from other taeniid species, including Taenia saginata (TsaVF), Taenia pisiformis (TpVF), Taenia hydatigena (ThVF), Taenia multiceps (TmVF), and Echinococcus granulosus (EgVF). Immunofluorescent assays showed that MAb 6C5 specifically reacted with the Ts18 expressed from pEGFP-N1-Ts18-transfected HeLa cells. Immunolocalization analysis, using MAb 6C5 as a probe, indicated that Ts18 was present at high concentrations in the region of the larval sucker and spiral canal. The results indicate that the Ts18 protein is an abundantly secreted parasite protein and MAbs against it might provide a step forward for improving the diagnosis of porcine cysticercosis.

Cysticercus cellulosae, the larval form of the cestode, Taenia solium, affects human eye in 13–46% of larva infested patients. Ocular cysticercosis occurs in all ethnic groups regardless of dietary habits and is endemic in tropical areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, India, East Asia, Mexico and Latin America. The human becomes an accidental intermediate host by ingesting food or water contaminated with eggs or autoinfection. Ocular cysticercosis has varied presentations and may be extraocular (subconjunctival, extraocular muscles or orbital tissues) or intraocular (vitreous, subretinal space, or anterior chamber). Extraocular cysticercosis is reported more commonly from India. We report two cases of extraocular cysticercosis in young having unusual presentations leading to a wrong diagnosis.