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Estimates of Trichomonas vaginalis prevalence in pregnant women are variable with few studies in Iraq. T. vaginalis is a worldwide prevalent sexually transmitted infection, but fortunately, it is very treatable. Researchers believed that pregnancy is one of the effective factors for T. vaginalis infection in women. A cross-sectional study performed in Obstetrics and Gynecology Department at Maternity and Children Hospital in Al-Diwaniya city on two hundred female pregnant patients between the ages of 16–45 years. These females had no intercourse for 2–3 days, not using drugs (antibiotics, antiprotozoal or steroids) for the last 15 days. Vaginal discharges of any type with or without itching, burning sensation or both were their main complaints. Vaginal swabs were taken from all participating patients for direct wet mount microscopy and culture for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis infection. The study showed that twelve out of two hundred examined pregnant women (6%) presented with T. vaginalis infection. The infection was more in those with mothers’ age (26–35) years, housewives, low education, higher parity, and of rural residents. Other maternal variables were not significantly associated with T. vaginalis infection. The study showed a prevalence of (6%) of T. vaginalis infection in pregnant female attendees. Infection was more in those with mothers ’age (26–35) years, housewives, low educational level, higher parity, and living in rural areas.

Background Chronic infection with high-risk human papillomavirus is a necessary cause for cervical carcinogenesis. This study examined prevalence of nonavalent vaccine preventable HPV types over four months among sexually active women in the United States. Methods This sub-study obtained meta-data for 80 of the 1,365 women (18–25 years), enrolled in the BRAVO study, a randomized, open-label trial of home screening and treatment of asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis at high-risk for sexually transmitted infections conducted between 2008 and 2013. Participants were randomized to treatment or standard-of-care, and followed every 2-months for 12 months. Stored vaginal swabs from the first three visits were tested for the nine vaccine preventable HPV types using quantitative PCR. Prevalence and associated 95% confidence intervals for the HPV types were assessed using R (version 3.6.1). Results The average age of the participants was 21.5 (SD ± 2.11) years, with 60% having ever been pregnant and all were African-American. Majority (71%) reported ≥ two sex partners in the prior year with 89% having unprotected vaginal sex and 45% having a new sex partner in the prior year. About 30% had ≥ one of the nine nonavalent vaccine HPV types at all three time points over a period of four months, 15% at two of any three visits, 19% at one of the three visits and 36% were negative for all nine vaccine HPV types at all time points. The most frequently detected HPV vaccine types were 52, 58, 16, and 18. The prevalence of any vaccine HPV types, and high-risk HPV types was 63.8% and 58.8%, respectively. Conclusions Our findings suggest that HPV vaccination which is currently recommended for all unvaccinated persons through age 26 years, is likely to be more beneficial than previously thought as nonavalent HPV vaccine was not available during the time these data were collected.

Many women with pelvic organ prolapse opt for a pessary, and some of these women develop erosions of the vaginal mucosa. Ongoing erosions might lead to the discontinuation of this otherwise effective, non-invasive, and inexpensive treatment. The objectives of this study were to investigate the differences in vaginal pH and variations of the vaginal microbiota among pessary and non-pessary users.For this descriptive observational study, 30 women, followed in our urogynecology clinic, were recruited to form 3 equal groups: 2 groups of women using a pessary (with and without erosions) and 1 control group of women not using a pessary. Vaginal pH was measured distally and next to the erosion. Vaginal swabs were used to investigate the vaginal microbiota by sequencing the V4 region of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene and analyzing the data with Qiime2. Descriptive statistics were reported using the median values. Vaginal pH comparisons between groups were made using a Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn's correction for multiple comparisons.The pH of the vagina was more alkaline in women with erosions compared with women in the other 2 groups (P 0.01). Also, the pH of the distal vagina was not different from the pH next to the erosion (P = 0.25). Patients with erosions displayed significant differences in their vaginal microbiota, which contained a much greater bacterial diversity with an increase in gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria) and a decrease in lactobacilli.In our study, women with vaginal erosions had significantly higher vaginal pH and more complex vaginal microbiota than women in the control groups. Treatments focusing on lowering the vaginal pH and/or re-establishing the vaginal microbiota should be considered.

Sexual assault cases where there is an allegation of digital or penile penetration but no semen is detected on the vaginal swabs have historically been difficult to investigate due to the high background levels of female DNA present. Previous studies have shown the value of Y-STR analysis in such cases. This study aims to provide: 17% of the cases in this study generated Y-STR profiles suitable for subjective or statistical evaluation following analysis with Yfiler® compared with 34% of the cases analysed with Powerplex® Y23, demonstrating the value of using more recently developed Y-STR multiplexes compared with older kits.

Time since intercourse (TSI) expectations are dependent on the method used to recover spermatozoa from vaginal swabs. TSI data following Sperm Elution™ is presented from a large scale study of 2269 cases of penile–vaginal penetration sexual assault allegations analysed by Cellmark Forensic Services and is compared to published TSI data generated using two different water-based elution methods Sperm Elution recovered spermatozoa in 32% of cases analysed where the alleged offence had occurred 3–4 days previously, significantly above the level detected using other elution methods. The improvements afforded by Sperm Elution in the ability to generate clearly distinguishable male DNA profiles from samples containing low levels of spermatozoa, and the recovery of further spermatozoa from swabs previously subjected to water-based elution methods are also discussed.

In Belgium, it is a general recommendation to collect swabs and rinses in rape cases. We evaluated the need of both prelevations for successful DNA analysis based on historical data. DNA concentrations and success rate of STR analysis of a total of 213 PSA positive rinses (including 29 anal and 184 vaginal rinses) and 256 PSA positive swabs (including 55 anal and 201 vaginal swabs) were compared. The study includes 154 cases where both a swab and a rinse were analysed simultaneously. Considering all vaginal and anal swabs and all rinses together, the median of the DNA concentration of DNA isolates of swabs is approximately 2.5 times higher than those of the DNA isolates of rinses. Moreover the success rate of obtaining an autosomal STR profile useful to identify the assailant is 72% for swabs versus 65% for rinses for the cases where both a swab and a rinse were examined simultaneously. In conclusion, swabs were found to have a higher DNA yield and a higher success rate of STR analysis for identifying the alleged assailant than rinses.

Previous research has established analytical frameworks and discrimination models for the analysis of commercial silicone-based and water-based lubricants, but there has been no report of the application to casework. The analytical framework was first tested on two proficiency trials to validate the methodology on cotton swabs. Then two case samples, where condoms were suspected of having been used, were submitted to the laboratory for analysis. Examination of vaginal swabs for condom evidence was performed, independent of knowledge regarding the presence of seminal fluid or other sources of DNA. Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography mass spectrometry (py-GC-MS) and Gas Chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to analyze the evidence and compare the chemical profiles obtained to published databases. The protocol was successfully used on two proficiency trials, one in which py-GC-MS chemical profiles were easily differentiated, and the second in which GC-MS was used to identify the source of the chemical profile on the recovered item. Although the application to casework samples was possible, challenges regarding the interpretation of the evidence were highlighted and need to be considered by forensic practitioners.

The first reported case of necrophilia has been identified in November 2020 in a 20-years old unmarried man working in a Forensic Morgue as an assistant. A 20 years old man was working as a helping hand of a mortuary assistant for the last 4 years.While providing the postmortem report, the same DNA profile was detected from the high vaginal swabs of five female dead bodies. However, the dead bodies were sent from different localities to the morgue from March 2019 to August 2020. The police collected samples from the suspected case for the purpose of DNA profiling from a discarded cigarette bud. Then, he was charged with rape on dead bodies and was arrested by police, and produced to court for trial under criminal procedure. The case indicates some fundamental challenges in forensic psychiatry of Bangladesh such as diagnostic challenges and legal challenges. We aimed to discuss the challenges of diagnosis and forensic psychiatry implication in the Bangladesh context for necrophilia.

Objective Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is the best established biomarker of semen exposure. PSA in vaginal fluid returns to pre-exposure concentrations within 24–48 h, but the speed of decay during the first 10 h is unknown. We sought to determine how fast PSA concentrations decline during the first 10 h after exposure to semen. Study design Women in the 50 enrolled couples were intravaginally inoculated with 10, 20, 100 and 200 μl of their partner's semen and then collected vaginal swabs immediately after, 30 min, 4 h and 10 h after exposure. Forty-seven sets of samples were tested for PSA. Mixed linear models for repeated measures examined the association between log-transformed PSA values and sampling time and semen exposure volume. Sensitivity analyses excluded data from nonabstainers. Fixed-effect estimates from the statistical models were graphed. Results PSA values were highest at 200 μl inoculation volumes and at earlier post-exposure time points, then decline steadily. The lowest inoculation volume (10 μl) corresponded to the smallest concentration of PSA throughout the post-inoculation time points. Average PSA levels return to clinically non-detectable levels within 10 h only at the lowest semen exposures. The PSA decay curve assumes a very similar profile across all time points and semen amounts. Conclusions The PSA decay curve is similar for varying semen exposure volumes, with average PSA concentrations remaining above clinical thresholds 10 h after exposure at all except the very smallest semen exposure levels. PSA is an objective marker of recent exposure to semen, permitting such detection with high accuracy. Implications This study clarifies how PSA values vary at different semen exposure levels and time points during the first 10 h post-exposure. Future contraceptive studies that use PSA as a semen biomarker will be better informed about PSA concentrations at different sampling times and exposure amounts.

Objectives To determine the post-procedure acceptability of self-collecting a vaginal swab for HPV testing among a highly impoverished and geographically isolated population of medically underserved Black women residing in the Mississippi Delta. Further, to test correlates of reporting that self-collection is preferred over Pap testing. Finally, to determine the prevalence of any of 13 high-risk HPV types among this population and the correlates of testing positive. Methods Eighty-eight women were recruited from two churches located in different towns of the Mississippi Delta. After completing a survey, women were provided instructions for self-collecting a cervico-vaginal swab and completing a post-collection survey. Specimens were tested for 13 oncogenic HPV types. Due to the exploratory nature of the study, significance was defined by a 0.15 alpha-level. Results Comfort levels with self-collection were high: 78.4% indicated a preference for self-collecting a specimen compared to Pap testing. Overall, 24 women (28.7%) tested positive for one or more of the 13 HPV types. Significant associations with testing positive were found for women having sex with females (P = 0.09), those never having an abnormal Pap (P = 0.06), younger women (P = 0.10), those with greater fatalism scores (P = 0.006), and those having less trust in doctors (P = 0.001). Conclusions Black rural women from the deep-south are generally comfortable self-collecting cervico-vaginal swabs for HPV testing. Given that nearly 30% tested positive for oncogenic HPV, and that fatalism as well a lack of trust in doctors predicted prevalence, a reasonable screening alternative to Pap testing may be community-based testing for HPV using self-collected vaginal swabs., Highlights • The majority reported they preferred HPV testing over having Pap tests. • Overall, 28.7% tested positive for one or more of the 13 HPV types. • The mean fatalism score was significantly and substantially greater for HPV + women. • Comfort in self-collecting was a strong correlate of preferring HPV testing.

Self-collected specimens for infectious disease testing are becoming more commonplace. There are multiple published studies demonstrating that self-collected vaginal swabs for detection of sexually transmitted pathogens are as accurate as physician-collected endocervical swabs. Similarly, self-collected penile-meatal swabs are also acceptable for detecting sexually transmitted pathogens; however, unlike self-collected vaginal swabs, penile-meatal swabs are not considered an "on-label" specimen for U.S. FDA-cleared in vitro diagnostic products. Data on the accuracy of self-collected nasal specimens for respiratory tract infections are encouraging, but studies also show that patients do not always follow instructions when mailing samples back to the laboratory. Unfortunately, there are only a few reports of self-collected specimens for detecting enteric pathogens, such as Salmonella, Shigella, or Campylobacter . Microbiologists need to be proactive in making sure that training materials developed for self-collection (such as laminated cards, videos, and other resources) are accurate and easy to understand (which includes being available in multiple languages) and provide clear instructions on how to handle a specimen once it has been collected.

Background Self-collected vaginal swab samples have been proposed as an alternative specimen collection method for human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA detection. Objectives Two vaginal swabs (a cone-shaped flocked swab (DRY) and a L-shape FLOQSwab with 2 mL eNAT transport medium (WET)) were compared to standard cervical samples for HPV DNA testing. Additionally, they were also compared by using Roche Cobas 4800 HPV (Roche_HPV) and Abbott Real-time High Risk HPV (Abbott_HPV) tests. Study design Ninety-six women were prospectively enrolled from the National Cancer Center in Korea between June and August 2015. WET and DRY vaginal swabs and cervical specimens were collected. Roche_HPV and Abbott_HPV tests were performed. The Roche_HPV test on cervical specimens was used as reference. Results The observed agreements (kappa) of Roche_HPV and Abbott_HPV between WET and DRY swabs were 89.6% (0.790, 95% confidence interval (95% CI): 0.667–0.913) and 91.7% (0.833, 95%CI: 0.723–0.943), respectively. No statistical difference was observed between WET and DRY swabs ( p > 0.05 for all comparisons). For HPV16/18, the sensitivity/specificity of Roche_HPV on the DRY and WET samples presented 93.8%/96.3% and 87.5%/97.5%, respectively. For other High Risk HPV (hrHPV), the sensitivity/specificity of Roche_HPV on the DRY and WET swabs presented 91.9%/91.5% and 97.3%/98.3, respectively. The sensitivity/specificity of the Abbott_HPV on the DRY and WET swabs were 93.8%/98.8%, 87.5%/98.8% for HPV16/18, and 91.9%/93.2%, 100.0%/93.2% for other hrHPV, respectively. Conclusions HPV tests performed similarly when using vaginal DRY and WET swab samples. Using DRY and WET swabs to collect vaginal specimens could be an alternative to collecting cervical samples for HPV DNA testing.

The UK and Ireland Association of Forensic Science Providers' (AFSP) Body Fluid Forum (BFF) set out to assist in the interpretation of sexual offence cases where semen is absent on vaginal swabs but female DNA is present on penile swabs or male underwear, and the issue to be addressed is whether or not sexual intercourse occurred. This study aims to investigate the frequency and amount of female DNA transferred to the penis and underwear of males following staged nonintimate social contact with females and to compare the findings with the amount of female DNA transferred to the penis and subsequently to the underwear of a male who had engaged in unprotected sexual intercourse with a female. In this study, no matching female DNA was detected on the inside front of the 44 items of male underwear used in this research following staged contact of a nonintimate nature and subsequent secondary transfer to the penis. After sexual intercourse, full profiles matching the female participant were found on the inside front of the males underwear with maximum peak heights in the range between 1898 and 3157 rfu. It was possible to demonstrate that DNA can occasionally transfer to the waistband and outside front of underwear worn by a male following staged nonintimate social contact. Data obtained in this study suggest that a matching female DNA profile below a peak height of 1000 rfu on the waistband of a male's underwear might be explained by nonintimate social contact with secondary transfer of female DNA from the male's hands.

Differential lysis is an established method for vaginal swabs containing semen stains. However, it can be a challenge to obtain a single-source male profile when vaginal swabs contain only low amounts of spermatozoa, as DNA from the perpetrator's sperm cells tends to be obscured by the presence of an excess of DNA from epithelial cells. In our study we compared seven different protocols (Differex™, Sampletype i-sep ® DL, Sampletype i-sep ® SQ, GEN-IAL ® First-DNA all tissue kit, The Erase Sperm Isolation Kit, QIAcube Washing Station, in-House-method) in order to determine the efficiency of sperm separation and DNA yield. In a first evaluation, a high concentration of semen (about 1000ng) was transferred onto vaginal swabs. The changes of the female:male ratio in the sperm/non-sperm fractions comparing the standard extraction samples were used to determine efficiency of separation. The recovery of spermatozoa was determined based on male DNA concentration in the samples. Some methods showed significant improvement in the female:male ratio as well as the high male DNA recovery and were therefore subsequentially investigated using decreasing amounts of semen.

Ureaplasma spp. are associated with female genital tract infections and are mainly tested by liquid culture in developing countries. To evaluate the accuracy of liquid culture, 686 vaginal swabs were collected and tested by using the Mycoplasma Culturing, Identification, Enumeration, and Susceptibility (IES) Kit. Then these culture broths were verified using real-time PCR. Among 368 Ureaplasma positive broths, 263 contained Ureaplasma parvum, 30 contained Ureaplasma urealyticum, 57 contained both, and 18 were negative by real-time PCR. In 318 Ureaplasmas negative broths, 78 were found to be Ureaplasma positive by real-time PCR. Using real-time PCR as the reference, the false positive rate of the liquid culture was 7.0%. It has been suggested that the liquid culture positive broth should be inoculated onto solid agar to eliminate false-positives. However, solid culture is rarely used due to low sensitivity and being time consuming. Real-time PCR may be performed to replace solid culture to verify suspicious liquid culture results.

In 2016, EFS began a continuous improvement project designed to increase success rates in sexual assault cases targeting, in particular, intimate swabs where low numbers of spermatozoa were present. The objectives of the project were (1) to optimise the recovery of semen from cotton-based vaginal swabs, (2) to increase the effectiveness of searching microscope slides to identify sparsely distributed spermatozoa and (3) to reduce the incidence of carryover female DNA in the seminal fraction after differential lysis. Since implementation, this modified protocol, which we have called ‘SpermTrap®’, has improved laboratory success rates markedly.

Bovine gammaherpesvirus type 4 (BoHV-4) is increasingly related with reproductive disease in cattle, but its epidemiology is not fully understood. We monitored the serological response and shedding of BoHV-4 in a positive dairy cattle farm with metritis. First, we performed an ELISA to detect BoHV-4 antibodies in all the animals (n = 104). Afterwards, ten seronegative heifers introduced in the production lot and sera samples were monthly taken for four months and then 6–10 months after introduction to detect BoHV-4 antibodies by ELISA. Moreover, a vaginal swab was taken after calving to detect BoHV-4 by PCR. Concurrently, a weekly collection of vaginal and nasal swabs and milk was performed during the first month post-partum in multiparous cows with metritis (n = 14), heifers with metritis (n = 4), heifers without metritis but positive to BoHV-4 (ELISA or PCR) (n = 2) and multiparous cows without metritis (n = 3). Seropositivity was higher in older animals and in the production lot. Three heifers which shed BoHV-4 after parturition resulted seronegative at first but eventually seroconverted. In the same vein, most heifers seroconverted after 6–10 months in the production lot (8/10). Multiparous cows shed virus by various routes: 13/14 (93 %) in vaginal secretions, 7/14 (50 %) in nasal exudates and 7/14 (50 %) in milk. However, in the other groups, shedding was only detected in vaginal swabs from the first week post-partum. Our study describes BoHV-4 shedding in field conditions. Seronegative animals may become horizontally infected when moved to a contaminated environment.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of the complement fixation test (CFT) with respect to ELISA for the serological diagnosis of Q fever and to assess the role of serology as a tool for the identification of the shedder status. During 2009-2010, sera from 9635 bovines and 3872 small ruminants (3057 goats and 815 sheep) were collected and analyzed with CFT and ELISA. In addition, 2256 bovine, 139 caprine and 72 ovine samples (individual and bulk tank milk samples, fetuses, vaginal swabs and placentae) were analyzed with a real-time PCR kit. The relative sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) of CFT with respect to ELISA were Se 26.56% and Sp 99.71% for cattle and Se 9.96% and Sp 99.94% for small ruminants. To evaluate the correlation between serum-positive status and shedder status, the ELISA, CFT and real-time PCR results were compared. Due to the sampling method and the data storage system, the analysis of individual associations between the serological and molecular tests was possible only for some of the bovine samples. From a statistical point of view, no agreement was observed between the serological and molecular results obtained for fetus and vaginal swab samples. Slightly better agreement was observed between the serological and molecular results obtained for the individual milk samples and between the serological (at least one positive in the examined group) and molecular results for the bulk tank milk (BTM) samples. The CFT results exhibited a better correlation with the shedder status than did the ELISA results.

Dogs can be trained for various odour detection tasks, and have been used to search for explosives, drugs or cancer biomarkers. However, there are only a few studies that have attempted to train dogs for oestrus detection using vaginal fluid, milk or urine of cows. In this study, seven dogs were trained utilizing special training equipment to discriminate oestrus against dioestrus scent in vaginal fluid, urine and milk of dairy cows. We set out (1) to determine the length of the learning phase of dogs using vaginal discharge to identify cows in oestrus, (2) to prove that dogs can generalize oestrus specific odour of cows and are not limited to an individual cow scent in oestrus, and (3) to study if dogs can identify oestrus specific odour in urine and milk, after they have been trained with vaginal fluid. Our results demonstrate that dogs can be trained for oestrus detection with vaginal swabs or urine of cows using special laboratory equipment within 52 positive reinforced contacts to the target scent. The dogs were correctly identifying the oestrus sample with a maximum accuracy of 80.3%. They could verify this accuracy in a blinded test situation testing novel samples. The dogs in this study were able to detect oestrus in urine and milk samples spontaneously, after being trained with vaginal fluid samples. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved

Female vaginal contraceptives are associated with increased susceptibility to infections. The prevalence of female reproductive tract infections (RTI) among contraceptive users was determined. A total of 187 female participants including 156 contraceptive users and 31 age-matched noncontraceptive users with signs and symptoms of RTIs were recruited for this study. A questionnaire was used to collect demographic information. High vaginal swabs were collected from each participant and processed using standard technique. Female contraceptive users (40.4%) had an increased risk for developing RTIs compared to noncontraceptive users (19.35%) (OR = 2.833, 95 CI = 1.095, 7.276; p = 0.044). Intrauterine device (IUD) users (53.07%; p = 0.032), users of contraceptives for less than 1 year (60.00%; p = 0.003) and age group of 26-30 years (68.18%; p = 0.0001) had significantly higher prevalence of RTIs among contraceptive users. Candida albicans was the most prevalent etiologic agent of RTIs among contraceptive users irrespective of types of contraceptives, bacteria vaginosis caused by other bacterial isolates was the most common RTIs among noncontraceptive users. In this situation, Klebsiella species was found only among IUD users. The study reveals an overall prevalence of 36.90% of female RTIs. Contraceptive users had 1-7 fold increase in developing RTIs. Vaginal candidiasis and bacterial vaginosis were the most common female RTIs observed among contraceptives and noncontraceptive users. Some valuable measures to reduce infections associated with contraceptive use are advocated.

Objective We aimed to evaluate if patient- and provider-collected vaginal swabs in pregnant women reflect similar bacterial community characteristics. Pregnant patients performed a self-collected vaginal swab, then underwent a provider-collected swab via speculum exam. DNA pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene V1V3 and V3V5 variable regions was performed. Relative abundance of taxa, alpha diversity, and beta diversity of patient- and provider-collected swabs were compared. Results Ninety-four vaginal swabs from 47 women were analyzed. On non-metric multi-dimensional scaling plots, paired patient- and provider-collected swabs clustered closely. The median Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.993 (interquartile range 0.951–0.999) for V1V3 and 0.987 (interquartile range 0.902–0.999) for V3V5. Among paired V1V3 and V3V5 sequences, 83.0% and 73.9% showed strong Pearson correlation (> 0.9), respectively, between patient- and provider-collected swabs; V1V3 and V3V5 sequences with weaker Pearson correlation (

A PCR assay for the detection of Brucella canis in canine vaginal swab samples was evaluated, comparing its performance with that of bacterial isolation, serological tests, and a blood PCR assay. One hundred and forty-four female dogs were clinically examined to detect reproductive problems and they were tested by the rapid slide agglutination test, with and without 2-mercaptoethanol (2ME-RSAT and RSAT, respectively). In addition, microbiological culture and PCR were performed on blood and vaginal swab samples. The results of the vaginal swab PCR were compared to those of the other tests using the Kappa coefficient and McNemar test. Of the 144 females that were examined, 66 (45.8%) were RSAT positive, 23 (15.9%) were 2ME-RSAT positive, 49 (34.02%) were blood culture positive, 6 (4.1%) were vaginal swab culture positive, 54 (37.5%) were blood PCR positive, 52 (36.2%) were vaginal swab PCR positive, and 50.69% (73/144) were positive by the combined PCR. The PCR was able to detect as few as 3.8 fg of B. canis DNA experimentally diluted in 54 ng of canine DNA, extracted from vaginal swab samples of non-infected bitches. In addition, the PCR assay amplified B. canis genetic sequences from vaginal swab samples containing 1.0 x 10(0) cfu/mL. In conclusion, vaginal swab PCR was a good candidate as a confirmatory test for brucellosis diagnosis in bitches suspected to be infected, especially those negative on blood culture or blood PCR; these animals may be important reservoirs of infection and could complicate attempts to eradicate the disease in confined populations.

A semiquantitative evaluation of potential bacterial pathogens was correlated to the severity of lesions during an outbreak of bovine necrotic vulvovaginitis (BNVV) on an Israeli dairy herd. Bacteriologic examination of 287 vaginal swabs from 104 post-calving heifers showed a highly significant correlation between Porphyromonas levii colony forming unit numbers and the clinical scores of the lesions, when assessed by an ordinal regression statistical model. No such correlation was found for the other bacteria included in the study. Nineteen samples taken for virological examinations resulted negative for bovine herpes viruses 1, 2, 4 and 5. Thus the results of this study substantiate the essential role of P. levii in the etiology of BNVV and indicate that BHV4 is not required as a predisposing factor to the syndrome.

Forensic palynology is a useful source of evidence in cases of violence committed in the open. A young girl was grabbed off the street, threatened and brutally raped. During the investigation the exact place of the rape became an issue. Growing around the scene identified by the victim were shrubs identified as Coprosma, a common New Zealand plant and one that produces abundant, easily wind-dispersed pollen. Abundant Coprosma pollen was found at the scene. The pollen were unusual in that the site was very damp, encouraging fungal growth, and fungal hyphae had penetrated the pores of many of the tricolporate pollen grains. Some grains had fungal spores inside. Coprosma pollen identical in preservational characteristics and morphology to those from the scene and containing fungal hyphae and spores were found in considerable numbers on the victim's clothes. This and rare Coprosma pollen grains and fungal remains recovered from vaginal swabs provided evidence that she had been at the scene where she claimed to have been raped. The diversity of pollen types recovered from the clothing in this case provides further evidence of the usefulness of clothing in picking up and retaining pollen from crime scenes and that obvious staining on clothes is not a pre-requisite for good pollen recovery. It also demonstrates the importance of collecting samples from different parts of the same garment in order to get a full picture of events since different parts of a garment can come into contact with different plants or different parts of the ground in a scuffle. It is also demonstrated that significant evidential material can be collected from the body, in this case from vaginal swabs from the victim. Forensic palynology should be considered in every case of violent assault, especially, but not exclusively, when having occurred in an open area subject to extensive pollen settlement.

In the forensic science laboratory, the recovery of spermatozoa from vaginal swabs, or vaginal cells from penile swabs, can help determine if sexual intercourse may have taken place. There are several methods used to recover spermatozoa and cells from the swabs before visualisation on a microscope slide and most of these methods use water. Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) is a non-toxic solution used in many biological laboratories. Unlike water, PBS prevents cells rupturing or shrivelling up due to osmosis. This study demonstrates that PBS can be used for the extraction of spermatozoa and cells from swabs and that PBS does not affect subsequent DNA profiling.

Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), which are highly sensitive and specific, have provided the ability to use alternative sam-ple types for the diagnosis of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Self-collected genital specimens, such as urine or even vaginal swabs, can now be accurately used to diagnose gonorrhea or chlamydia infections. In many cases, use of these sample types can decrease the necessity for a clinician to perform a pelvic examination on women or to collect a urethral swab from men, thus extending the diagnostic capability for detecting these infections to nonclinic screening venues. As most chlamydia infections and many gonorrhea infections are asymptomatic, the use of NAATs for self-collected samples greatly increases the types and numbers of patients that can be screened outside of clinic settings. Self-sampling also allows clinicians to easily screen patients in the clinic for STIs who are not presenting for pelvic or urogenital examinations. The application of NAATs to self-collected specimens has the potential to augment public health programs designed to control the epidemic of STIs in the community.

We reinvestigated 20 cases of rape/sexual maltreatment from the years 2000/2001 (i.e. 61 different samples) that had already been investigated by STR typing (using Profiler Plus and mentype kit). In 10 cases, male DNA has been detected in stains or vaginal swabs, samples from the other 10 cases did not show any traces of male DNA. Ten Y-specific loci were amplified in two multiplex PCRs, mpI: DYS393, DYS19, DYS392, DYS385; mpII: DYS390, DYS391, DYS389I and II. Even though amplification of Y-specific loci was not more sensitive and did not lead to any other conclusions than autosomal STR typing alone, in specific cases Y-STR determination gave important information, e.g. when the male suspect was unknown or when mixed stains from more than one male person had to be investigated.

Objective: To evaluate the use of self-collected vaginal swabs to test for Neisseria gonorrhoeae , Chlamydia trachomatis , and Trichomonas vaginalis , and to describe the acceptability of this technique to adolescents. Design: Comparison of a new protocol for sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing with the current standard of care, using the same subjects. Survey of attitudes regarding the self-collection technique. Setting: A juvenile correctional facility in western Pennsylvania. Participants: Convenience sample of 133 detainees, 12–17 years of age. Intervention: Girls were invited to undergo STI screening using a self-collected vaginal swab. Polymerase chain reaction was used to test this specimen for each of the above three infections. Pelvic exams and endocervical testing were performed at the discretion of the physician performing the intake physical, independent of the study. Main Outcome Measures: The number of infections diagnosed using the self-testing protocol, compared to the number diagnosed using standard practices; acceptability of the self-collection technique. Results: Twenty-four percent of sexually active subjects had one or more infections diagnosed by self-testing: 11.3% had C. trachomatis , 8.5% had N. gonorrhoeae , and 11.7% had T. vaginalis . Only 30% of subjects with infections had pelvic exams while detained; therefore 70% of girls with infections would have been missed in the absence of the self-testing option. The self-collection technique was acceptable to 95% of subjects. Conclusions: STI testing using self-collected vaginal specimens is highly acceptable to adolescent girls, and can dramatically increase the detection rate for these three treatable infections when pelvic exams are not performed.

Sheep Campylobacter isolates from Kaduna State were characterized into their species and bioserogrouped. A total of 1100 samples were collected from Kaduna abattoir and National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI), Shika. The samples were from 250 gallbladder, 250 intestinal contents, 100 fetal stomach contents all from Kaduna abattoir while 250 rectal swabs and 250 vaginal swabs were from the NAPRI Small Ruminant Programme. Of a total of 1100 samples, 39 (3.54%) yielded Campylobacter organisms. The highest isolation rate (6.8%) was from samples of intestinal contents followed by those from gall bladders (4.0%). Samples from the vaginal and fetuses had the lowest isolation rates (2.80%) and (0%), respectively. Of the 39 Campylobacter isolates from all the sources, (79%) were characterized as C. fetus subsp jejuni, C. coli (13%) and C. laridis (8.0%). while C. coli and C. laridis were isolated from gall bladder and intestinal contents only. Campylobacter fetus subsp jejuni biotype 1 accounted for 40.3% of the total isolates. C. laridis biotypes I and II were also isolated and accounted for 5% and 3% of the isolates, respectively. 5% of the isolates were not typeable. The serogroups 4 (13%), 36 (10%), 9 (10%), 84 (8%), 29 (5%) and 20 (8%) were the commonest serogroups identified in sheep at two locations surveyed. The isolation of Campylobacter organisms from rectum, vagina, gallbladder, and intestinal contents is a clear indication that sheep serves as a reservoir of this organisms in Nigeria. Similarities between documented human Campylobacter isolates in Nigeria and those in the present study raised the possibility of cross-transmission between sheep and man. It is concluded that biotyping and serotyping can be used for epidemiological study of campylobacteriosis due to Campylobacter jejuni in sheep in Kaduna State of Nigeria.

Using a Filemaker-based database (DNA Pro-FILES, Synchrone Infosysteme Inc.), we have conducted a large-scale study on 1000 sexual assault (SA) cases where a standardized kit was submitted to our laboratory alone or with other types of exhibits. We looked at the likelihood of obtaining good quality DNA evidence, allegedly from the assailant, according to a number of parameters. The overall proportion of SA cases with DNA evidence is nearly 50%. A little more than 30% of SA kits provided DNA evidence while for 16% of cases DNA evidence could be obtained only from other exhibits. The likelihood of obtaining DNA evidence is approximately 50% in teenager and adult SA cases, but much lower for children 10 years old or younger (15%). In children cases, profiles were found mostly on clothing or skin swabs. The likelihood of obtaining DNA evidence from vaginal swabs remains good for up to 3 days after the assault (from 35% on the first day to 23% on the third day). A DNA profile was obtained from approximately 22% of anal/rectal swabs and 41% of skin swabs taken less than 1 day after the assault. Less than 10% of oral washes provided DNA evidence, all having been collected within 24h of the assault. We found that in bodily samples, a negative result for acid phosphate (AP) is a poor predictor of the likelihood of obtaining good quality DNA evidence. Approximately 15% of vaginal swabs and 8% of anal swabs negative for AP nevertheless provided good quality DNA evidence.

Introduction Group B streptococci (GBS) are transmitted from the mother to the newborn. Prevention of neonatal infection is achieved by intrapartum prophylaxis given to mothers colonized with GBS at 35 to 37 weeks of pregnancy. Materials and methods Liquid biphasic Granada medium (LB) and instant liquid biphasic Granada medium (ILB) were evaluated for GBS detection. Vaginal swabs obtained from 300 women were inoculated onto LB or ILB, or onto Todd-Hewitt broth and analyzed with the ATB system (comparison method). Results Prevalence of GBS was 20% (61/300). LB and Todd-Hewitt with ATB detected GBS in 20% of women, and ILB in 19% of women. No growth was observed at four hours in any of the media studied. At 10 h and 14 h, identification of GBS was possible in 43/300 (14%) and 53/300 (18%) of ILB cultures, respectively, and in 32/300 (11%) and 46/300 (15%) of LB cultures. Conclusion All the media used are suitable for GBS detection. The majority of GBS were identified in ILB and LB cultures at 10 h and 14 h.

The differential extraction procedure first described by Gill et al. [1] refers to the process by which the DNA from epithelial cells and sperm cells can be separated into different fractions. Compared with other methods such as flow cytometry [2] and laser microdissection [3,4], differential extraction is relatively quick and low-cost. In the investigation of cases of sexual assault, semen stains on vaginal swabs and clothing or bedding items provide the most incriminating evidence. The elucidation of the perpetrator or contributor by DNA analysis is most often straightforward in a single-rape scenario. However, in a gang-rape situation the elucidation process becomes more complex due to the presence of multiple contributors in the semen stains. Semen stains on clothing or bedding items in a gang-rape could invariably consist entirely of sperm DNA from multiple perpetrators. When differential extraction is performed on these stains, the DNA differential profiles in both epithelial and sperm fractions would hence be of sperm origin. In this study, semen from different sources was separately dried on cloth and FTA cards. FTA cards are essentially cellulose paper with protective matrix to archive DNA [5]. The DNA on FTA cards would benchmark as non-degraded DNA. Differential extraction was carried out on imbalanced mixtures of sperm with an excess of DNA from one source, purportedly the major contributor. The differential profiles were analyzed to determine the separation patterns.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to determine the accuracy of fetal fibronectin values for diagnosing ectopic pregnancies. STUDY DESIGN: We obtained vaginal swabs from women with pregnancies of ≤12 weeks' gestation to perform enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for fetal fibronectin. Fetal fibronectin values were compared among groups categorized on the basis of clinical and laboratory criteria into (1) ectopic pregnancies, (2) threatened abortions, (3) incomplete/complete abortions, and (4) uncomplicated intrauterine pregnancies. RESULTS: Mean fetal fibronectin values ranged from 0.08 μg/mL in women with ectopic pregnancies to 0.33 μg/mL in women with threatened abortions. Comparing these two diagnostic categories, a negative fetal fibronectin test (at a cutoff level of 0.300 μg/mL) predicted ectopic pregnancy with a sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 28%, positive predictive value of 62%, and negative predictive value of 78%. CONCLUSION: Although fetal fibronectin is low in women with ectopic pregnancies, a negative test is not sufficiently sensitive and specific to be used clinically for the diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy. (Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:697-702.)

To assist in cases of sexual assault involving an azoospermic assailant, we have developed a method to identify male (non-sperm) cells present on post-coital vaginal swabs using fluorescence in situ hybridisation, and subsequently isolate them using laser microdissection. We have tested this method on 26 samples taken at a range of times since intercourse (TSI), and have obtained a full male profile from a sample taken when TSI was 24 h.

A new dot-immunobinding method, called the membrane aspiration test (MAT), was developed for the detection of human seminal plasma (HSP) antigens. Biological materials, such as macerated vaginal swabs or extracts from seminal stains, were dotted on a nitrocellulose membrane in a disposable aspiration kit. After the drying and aspiration of a quenching solution, a suspension of gold particles (GP) coated with an immune serum to HSP was aspirated through the nitrocellulose membrane. The dotted portion on the membrane turned red after several repeated aspirations, if HSP antigen was present. Results can be obtained within a few minutes. This test has broad applicability because of its rapidity and simplicity.

Background Reactive arthritis is classified as an autoimmune condition that develops in response to an infection in another part of the body (cross-reactivity). Coming into contact with bacteria and developing an infection can trigger the disease. Case presentation We describe a female patient, who presented with acute polyarthritis. Gynecological examination showed vaginal inflammation. Cultures from vaginal swabs grew Gardnerella vaginalis . The diagnosis of G. vaginalis induced reactive arthritis was posed. Treatment with Flagyl (500 mg a day) was followed by a gradual reduction of the arthritis, and vaginal discharge. Conclusion We propose to consider including Gardnerella infection among the causative factors of reactive arthritis and Reiter’s syndrome.

The value of the acid phosphatase spot test in the primary visualization and identification of seminal traces is hampered by the sensitiveness of the enzyme to biodegradation. An alternative spot test is proposed, based on the high concentration of the more stable zinc metal in seminal plasma. The proposed zinc spot test is simple and suitable for on site investigation. Although the sensitivity in fresh stains is lower than that of the acid phosphatase spot test, this is largely compensated by the lower sensitiveness to biodegradation. The specificity for semen is higher than that of the acid phosphatase spot test. In vaginal swabs it was nevertheless seen, that samples should be taken within 24 h after the alleged sexual assault to give reliable results.

With large number of criminal acts, such as rape and murder, identification of the perpetrator is very difficult to determine. The cause is the lack of sufficient quantity of biological traces provided as material evidence, or the biological material is decomposed and no result can be obtained by using other identification methods. Thus the case remains unsolved. The purpose of this research is to establish a reliable method for detecting semen presence in rape cases and to get DNA profile from the perpetrator of a crime. Vaginal swabs were taken using cotton swabs during gynecological examination or autopsy in 21 cases. The chemical detection of semen presence was performed using Phospathesmo Kits. The DNA extraction was performed using QIAAamp ® DNA Mini Kit. The amplification was performed using AmpFistrIdentifiler Kit and AmpFistrYfiler Kit. The electrophoresis was performed using 310 ABI squenator. Results indicate that DNA profile was obtained in 4 cases where chemical tests did not prove semen presence using Phospathesmo Kits. In one case, neither semen presence was chemically proven nor DNA profile was obtained for autosomal STRs, but a profile for Y-STRs was obtained. Our analyses indicate that when the victim's body is examined within the first few hours or the first day, a genetic profile of the perpetrator of the criminal act is obtained. Besides using autosomal STRs, we recommend Y-STRs to be used in all rape cases, too, thus separating the male from female profile, and also the male kinship relatedness in cases of incest could be followed, the rape performed by several blood-related men or similar.

The MetaSystems Metafer image analysis software system was purchased three years ago in the hope of developing a routine approach in the RCMP Forensic Laboratories to automate the scoring of human spermatozoa in sexual assault exhibits. This would enhance case throughput, increase assay sensitivity and standardize the search for spermatozoa. The development of appropriate classifiers was challenging but essential to teach the software system to specifically recognize human spermatozoa fluorescently stained using the Sperm Hy-Liter™ kit (Independent Forensics). Optimized classifiers were tested/validated using a diverse set of slides prepared from mock sexual assault samples containing a limited or a large number of spermatozoa (fecal swabs, vaginal swabs, all mixed with different semen dilutions in addition to urine, blood and yeasts for a subset of those swabs). The performance of Metafer was recorded with respect to false positive counts, false negative counts and time required for the detection of spermatozoa in each sample. Automated spermatozoa counts were further compared to manual spermatozoa scoring in addition to comparing the time spent executing the identification. An excellent concordance was noted between automated and manual counts. The results of this study indicate that automated scoring of fluorescently stained spermatozoa in mock sexual assault exhibits can be carried out reliably and reproducibly using well-developed classifiers for the MetaSystems Metafer image analysis software system. The automated scoring of spermatozoa combining Sperm Hy-Liter™/MetaSystems Metafer will be tested on a large number of sexual assault cases as part of a pilot project within an operational setting.

To enhance searching and standardize the identification of spermatozoa in sexual assault exhibits, the Sperm Hy-Liter™ kit was evaluated and validated using a large number of sexual assault type specimens and 6mm circle slides. The practicality and sensitivity of the fluorescence-based protocol were compared to our current phase contrast microscopy protocol and examined in the context of an improved workflow for processing sexual assault cases. Experiments performed indicate that the Sperm Hy-Liter™ assay is (1) highly specific and valid (no interference from semen obtained from various animals and absence of positive fluorescence signals in all control slides prepared from swabs with only blood, yeast, urine, vaginal epithelial cells or fecal material), (2) sensitive and reliable (spermatozoa detected in vaginal swabs soaked in 1:1000 and 1:10,000 semen dilutions; spermatozoa detected more effectively in real casework samples containing few spermatozoa compared to phase contrast microscopy), (3) fast (1min versus average of 10min or more using phase contrast microscopy for

The mRNA profiling method combined with a reverse transcription endpoint PCR method has been proven to be a suitable technique for the identification of vaginal secretion. The correct identification of a biological source is of vital importance in the samples from sexual assault cases. We have confirmed the reliability of the most common vaginal secretion mRNA-marker MUC4 to detect vaginal secretion in vaginal swabs in 33/42 samples. All negative results were obtained from a woman in menopause. Cross reactivity was detected in 3 out of 52 saliva samples and no cross reactivity (0/10) was detected in samples taken from tonsils. We evaluated the practical value of specificity of MUC4 for the identification of vaginal secretion by testing eight types of penile swabs taken after different sexual intercourses. All samples (5/5) taken from uncircumcised penis after heterosexual sex were positive for MUC4, but only one sample (1/5) from circumcised penis was positive for MUC4. No detection of any marker of interest was observed in penile swabs taken after homosexual anal sex. Additional buccal swabs from tonsils of men and women and penile swabs from clean penis without sex in past two days, were used as a negative control, while markers statherin and histatin 3, specific for saliva, served as positive markers. Both markers STATH and HTN3 were positive (52/52) in those samples as we expected (saliva) and negative in all others (0/92). The paper demonstrates that the correct identification of biological source of samples as vaginal secretion could be possible only if specific markers for saliva are tested coincidently with marker MUC4, while negative results should be taken with great precaution.

Almost 60% of the DNA evidences analyzed in our laboratory correspond to sexual assault cases. With the aim to assess the efficiency of the DNA IQ System (Promega) in recovering the perpetrator DNA profile, the statistical analysis of results obtained in 300 casework was performed. In such cases, 850 evidence samples were processed. In 71% of the cases the perpetrator DNA profile was detected in at least one of the submitted casework samples, with a minimum of 13 STRs markers typed using the AmpFlSTR Identifiler PCR amplification kit (Applied Biosystem). When the suspect DNA profile was available, 67% matched with the evidence. With regard to the type of evidence, the best performance corresponded to panties, with more than 70% of success in recovering male profile, whereas the efficiency of vaginal swabs was almost 60%, with a higher incidence of victim/perpetrator mixed profiles.

testing. This approach could increase testingwhen a pelvic exam is not performed. However, neither pH nor sialidase has optimal sensitivity and specificity compared to standard clinical criteria. Trust in self-BV test results increased when young women had the opportunity to try the test and discuss results with the clinician. Trust in self-testing was similar for TV and BV, suggesting that trust is not impacted by perceived severity or stigma associated with either diagnosis. The pH test is already marketed for over the counter use; thus, youngwomenwill likely have access to self-testing strategies for vaginitis in the future, but may continue to rely on clinicians for testing. Sources of Support: NIH/NIAID/K23 A1063182; NIBIB/1U54 B007958.

Fifty strains of Gardnerella vaginalis isolated from 321 high vaginal swabs over a period of five months were tested for their antibiotic sensitivity. Sixty eight per cent of all isolates were resistant to metronidazole while 76% were sensitive to clindamycin. All the strains isolated from cases with recurrence of infection were resistant to metronidazole. Clindamycin therapy has a better clinical efficacy than metronidazole in cases of recurrent bacterial vaginosis.