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Video games are among the most popular leisure activities in current Western societies. Psychology research has shown correlations, at the latent level, between intelligence and video games ranging from 0.60 to 0.93. Here we analyze whether video games genre can account for this range of correlations by testing one hundred and thirty-four participants playing ten video games of different genres for iPad® and WiiU® (Art of Balance®, Blek, Crazy Pool, EDGE®, Hook, Rail Maze, SkyJump, Space Invaders, Splatoon® and Unpossible) within a controlled playing environment. Gaming performance was correlated with standard measures of fluid reasoning, visuospatial ability, and processing speed. Results revealed a correlation value of 0.79 between latent factors representing general intelligence (g) and video games general performance (gVG). This finding leads to conclude that: (1) performance intelligence tests and video games is supported by shared cognitive processes and (2) brain-games are not the only genre able to produce performance measures comparable to intelligence standardized tests. From a theoretical perspective, the observed result supports the principle of the indifference of the indicator that has been addressed in intelligence research across decades.

Finding the shortest path to a destination is a refined navigation ability little explored as yet in familiar environments. The present study examined this ability when walking or describing the path, and how performance relates to individual differences. Sixty-seven undergraduates familiar with the area around their campus were asked to find the shortest path to a destination by walking there or describing it in writing. Several visuospatial tasks and questionnaires were administered. It emerged that shortest path finding performance was supported by familiarity and sense of direction. After accounting for these individual factors, participants performed better when walking than when describing a path. Overall, the results showed that retrieving spatial knowledge about familiar environments relates to individual differences and recall condition, walking a path being easier than describing it.

Microsurgical techniques are essential in plastic surgery; however, inconsistent training practices, acquiring these skills can be difficult. To address this, we designed a standardised laboratory-based microsurgical training programme, which allows trainees to develop their dexterity, visuospatial ability, operative flow and judgement as separate components.Thirty trainees completed an initial microsurgical anastomosis on a chicken femoral artery, assessed using the structured assessment of microsurgical skills (SAMS) method. The study group (n = 18) then completed a 3-month training programme, while the control group (n = 19) did not. A final anastomosis was completed by all trainees (n = 30).The study group had a significant improvement in the microsurgical technique, assessed using the SAMS score, when the initial and final scores were compared (Mean: 24 SAMS initial versus 49 SAMS final) (p 0.05, Wilcoxon's rank test). The control group had a significantly lower rate of improvement (Mean: 23 SAMS initial versus 25 SAMS final). There was a significant difference between the final SAMS score of the study group and that of senior surgeons (Mean: 49 study final SAMS versus 58 senior SAMS).This validated programme is a safe, cost-effective and flexible method of allowing trainees to develop microsurgical skills in a non-pressurized environment. In addition, the objectified skills allow trainers to assess the trainees' level of proficiency before operating on patients.

Why are some people more skilled in complex domains than other people? Here, we conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the relationship between cognitive ability and skill in chess. Chess skill correlated positively and significantly with fluid reasoning (Gf) ( r − = 0.24), comprehension-knowledge (Gc) ( r − = 0.22), short-term memory (Gsm) ( r − = 0.25), and processing speed (Gs) ( r − = 0.24); the meta-analytic average of the correlations was ( r − = 0.24). Moreover, the correlation between Gf and chess skill was moderated by age ( r − = 0.32 for youth samples vs. r − = 0.11 for adult samples), and skill level ( r − = 0.32 for unranked samples vs. r − = 0.14 for ranked samples). Interestingly, chess skill correlated more strongly with numerical ability ( r − = 0.35) than with verbal ability ( r − = 0.19) or visuospatial ability ( r − = 0.13). The results suggest that cognitive ability contributes meaningfully to individual differences in chess skill, particularly in young chess players and/or at lower levels of skill.

Raven's progressive matrices are considered a measure of inductive reasoning. However, there is evidence to suggest that they are not unidimensional, and they may measure visuospatial ability in addition to inductive reasoning. We investigated the psychometric properties of several versions of the Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). Confirmatory factor analyses and Rasch analyses were used to investigate the dimensionality of the test, sex differences regarding dimensionality, and the utility of proposed taxonomies of item solution strategies. Three samples were administered three different forms of the test. Sample 1 consisted of 1297 individuals (929 females) who completed a 12-item short form; Sample 2 consisted of 455 individuals (327 females) who completed the full APM; and Sample 3 consisted of 362 individuals (244 females) who completed a 15-item short form. Results indicated that all three forms of the APM are unidimensional and measurement invariant across sex. There was little support for the validity of the taxonomies of solution strategies.

Sex differences in cognitive abilities are a controversial but actively researched topic. The present study examined whether sex-role identity mediates the relationship between sex and sex-typed cognitive abilities. Three hundred nine participants (105 males and 204 females) were tested on a range of visuospatial and language tasks under laboratory conditions. Participants also completed measures of sex-role identity, used to classify them into masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated groups. While sex differences were found for some but not all measures, significant sex-role differences were found for all spatial and language measures with the exception of a novel 2D Mental Rotation Task. Masculine sex-roles partially mediated the relationship between sex and a composite measure of spatial ability, while feminine sex-roles fully mediated the relationship between sex and a composite measure of language ability. These results suggest that sex-role identity may have greater utility in explaining individual differences in cognitive performance than biological sex alone.

This study evaluates the effect of presentation media (PC tablet versus pencil and paper) on the performance, level of visual fatigue, and subjective preference of those taking visuospatial tests. Fifty university students participated and performed three visuospatial short-term memory tests and three visuospatial ability tests by using both types of display media. The display medium substantially affected all of the measured variables (p

The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) was administered to a sample of 7226 school students aged 6 to 18 years in Sudan. There were no statistically significant sex differences between the total scores of the 6 to 13 year olds, but among 14 to 18 year olds males obtained higher average scores than females and among the 16, 17 and 18 years olds the average male advantage was 0.337 d , equivalent to 5 IQ points. An analysis of the data for the sex differences on the three factors of Gestalt Visualization, Verbal-analytic Reasoning and Visuospatial Ability identified by Lynn, Allik and Irwing (2004) showed similar age trends to those for the total scores.

Background Hallucinations and delusions that complicate Parkinson's disease (PD) could lead to nursing home placement and are linked to increased mortality. Cognitive impairments are typically associated with the presence of hallucinations but there are no data regarding whether such a relationship exists with delusions. Objective We hypothesized that hallucinations would be associated with executive and visuospatial disturbance. An exploratory examination of cognitive correlates of delusions was also completed to address the question of whether they differ from hallucinations. Methods 144 PD subjects completed a neuropsychological battery to assess cognition and the SAPS to examine psychosis. Correlational analyses assessed associations between hallucinations and delusions with cognitive domains. Results 48 subjects (33%) reported psychotic symptoms: 25 (17%) experienced hallucinations without delusions, 23 (16%) had symptoms dominated by delusions. Severity and/or number of hallucination subtypes were significantly correlated with lower scores in language, memory, attention, executive functioning, and visuospatial ability. Correlations with delusions were non-significant. Tests of differences in the size of the correlations between groups revealed a significant relationship between language and visuospatial performance with hallucinations. Conclusions Cognitive correlates of hallucinations and delusions appear to be different in PD, suggesting distinct pathogenic mechanisms and possibly anatomical substrates. Hence, delusions may not share the same associations with dementia as hallucinations. Since this is a new finding, further studies will be needed to confirm our results.

The aim of the present study was to analyze how visuospatial and verbal abilities, styles and strategies predict and mediate the recall of visuospatial descriptions. A group of 198 participants read short visuospatial and abstract descriptions, and then answered multiple-choice questions and reported the strategies (imagery vs repetition) used to memorize the content. Participants' verbal and spatial abilities, and cognitive styles (distinguishing between visual, spatial and verbal styles) were also assessed. The results of the path analysis showed that there was a direct influence of verbal competence (reading comprehension) on description recall accuracy in both visuospatial and abstract texts; the influence of visuospatial competence (including spatial visualization and visual style) on recall accuracy was limited to the visuospatial description and was mediated by the use of an imagery strategy. Overall, these findings indicate that visuospatial ability, visual style, and imagery strategy jointly influence the accuracy of visuospatial description recall.

Second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) is a sexually dimorphic trait and a low ratio has been shown to be linked with a heightened visuospatial ability. Surgeons are typically renowned for good visuospatial awareness and this is now a requirement to gain access on to surgical training programmes. We hypothesized that a lower 2D:4D would be found in a cohort of surgeons compared to an age and gender matched control group. Digit ratios were measured in each group and compared. We found that male surgeons had a significantly reduced 2D:4D ratio compared to the controls. There was no difference observed between female surgeons and the female control. We have demonstrated that male surgeons have a significantly lower 2D:4D ratio compared to an age and gender matched control. This would be in keeping with published reports that a low 2D:4D ratio is associated with improved visuospatial ability.

One view attributes male predominance at the apex of intellectual achievement partly to some innate ability differences. Another view attributes it only to such social factors as socialization practices, lack of female role models, glass ceilings and male gatekeepers downplaying female achievement. The present study examined sex differences in performance at the top in international chess. This domain allows controls over the latter two social factors because chess has an objective performance measure based on game results and little of a glass ceiling as most tournaments are open to all and talent can rise quickly. The sex difference in performance in the top 10 and 50 of all international players is large at about one standard deviation and stayed roughly constant from 1975 to 2014. A large difference remained when examined over number of rated games played and also occurred, but not as strongly, with Georgian players, who have a high female participation rate. Male predominance in chess and related domains may be due partly to sex differences in innate abilities.

The use of two-dimensional (2D) symbolic representations for describing, communicating and reasoning about phenomena and concepts is a common practice in Chemistry. Many researchers have shown that there is a positive correlation between visuospatial ability and fluency with chemical representations. The aim of this study is the exploration of chemistry students’ skills to visualize and mentally manipulate molecular structures. In this paper the results of the implementation to chemistry students of the computerized version of the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotation and two purposely designed and developed prototype «visualization» instruments dealing with rotation and reflection of 2D symbolic molecular representations are presented.

Data are reported for intelligence measured by the Standard Progressive Matrices Plus of school students in Kazakhstan. Ethnic Kazakhs obtained a mean British IQ of 82.2, ethnic Russians obtained a mean British IQ of 103.2, and ethnic Uzbeks obtained a mean British IQ of 86.0. The IQ of Kazakhstan is estimated at 87.3. Factor analysis showed three factors identified as Gestalt Continuation, Verbal-Analytic Reasoning and Visuospatial Ability, replicating the analysis by Lynn, Allik, and Irwing (2004) . The Russians performed significantly better than the Kazakhs in all age groups on Factor g and Factor 1 (Visuospatial Ability). There was no significant ethnic difference for Factor 2 (Gestalt Continuation) for ages 11, 12 and 13, although Russians performed significantly better than Kazakhs for age 10. The Russians scored significantly higher Factor 3 (Verbal-Analytical Reasoning) at ages 11, 12 and 13.

The understanding of spatial relationships between brain structures taken from conventional sectional images is a major problem in learning anatomy. However, scientific literature has suggested that higher visuospatial abilities and computer-based instructional 3D visualizations may facilitate learning anatomy. This paper aims (1) to develop a computer-based tool to explore neuroanatomy based on three-dimensional images and (2) to compare whether the educational value assigned by students varies according to their visuospatial ability. An anatomical and functional viewer was developed with Positron Emission Tomography images to visualize three-dimensional models of real brain structures. Students assigned a high educational value to this tool, regardless of their visuospatial skills. The discussion section analyzes the implications of this technique in neuroanatomy training.

The executive clock drawing task (CLOX) is one of the widely used clock drawing tests (CDTs) and is composed of CLOX1, an unprompted CDT, and CLOX2, a simple copying CDT. Although it is conceptually believed that CLOX1 is sensitive to both executive function and constructional ability while CLOX2 reflects only constructional ability, there are still lack of studies on the functional neuroanatomical substrates of CLOX1 and 2 performances. This study aimed to identify the functional brain correlates of CLOX1 and 2 performances in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). CLOX was administered to 139 AD patients and 50 normal controls, and regional cerebral glucose metabolism (rCMglc) was measured by 18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-glucose positron emission tomography. Correlations between CLOX scores and rCMglc were examined on a voxel-by-voxel basis in AD patients. For the overall AD group, significant positive correlations between CLOX1 and rCMglc were found in the bilateral temporo-parietal and left middle frontal regions, while CLOX2 was correlated with rCMglc of the bilateral temporo-parietal regions. Additional subgroup analysis showed that CLOX1 was associated with the left temporal metabolism in less severe AD, and with the right temporo-parietal metabolism in more severe AD. In contrast, CLOX2 was correlated with rCMglc of the diffuse right fronto-temporo-parietal regions in more severe AD, but not with any rCMglc in less severe AD. This is the first neuroimaging study on the functional neuroanatomical correlates of CLOX performances in AD. Given the relationships between specific cognitive performances and regional brain functions, the findings probably support the notion that CLOX1 demands not merely visuospatial functions but also executive control, while CLOX2 depends mainly on visuospatial ability. Our results also indicate that each CLOX performance depends on very different functional brain regions according to AD clinical stages.

To analyze the relationship between visuospatial ability and simulated laparoscopy performed by consultants in obstetrics and gynecology (OBGYN).This was a prospective cohort study carried out at two community hospitals in Sweden. Thirteen consultants in obstetrics and gynecology were included. They had previously independently performed 10-100 advanced laparoscopies. Participants were tested for visuospatial ability by the Mental Rotations Test version A (MRT-A). After a familiarization session and standardized instruction, all participants subsequently conducted three consecutive virtual tubal occlusions followed by three virtual salpingectomies. Performance in the simulator was measured by Total Time, Score and Ovarian Diathermy Damage. Linear regression was used to analyze the relationship between visuospatial ability and simulated laparoscopic performance. The learning curves in the simulator were assessed in order to interpret the relationship with the visuospatial ability.Visuospatial ability correlated with Total Time (r=-0.62; p=0.03) and Score (r=0.57; p=0.05) in the medium level of the virtual tubal occlusion. In the technically more advanced virtual salpingectomy the visuospatial ability correlated with Total Time (r=-0.64; p=0.02), Ovarian Diathermy Damage (r=-0.65; p=0.02) and with overall Score (r=0.64; p=0.02).Visuospatial ability appears to be related to the performance of gynecological laparoscopic procedures in a simulator. Testing visuospatial ability might be helpful when designing individual training programs.

Anecdotal evidence indicates that dyslexia is positively associated with superior visuospatial ability but empirical evidence is inconsistent. We explicitly tested the hypothesis that dyslexia is associated with visuospatial advantage in 20 dyslexic and 21 unimpaired adult readers using paper-and-pencil measures and tests of 'everyday' visuospatial ability. We found no main effect of group on visuospatial task performance but did observe a series of significant sex × group interactions. Relative to dyslexic and unimpaired women, dyslexic men were significantly better at identifying shapes in ambiguous figures, reproducing complex figures, reproducing designs using coloured blocks, and recalling the direction of the Queen's head on a postage stamp. They were also significantly faster and more accurate than unimpaired men at navigating and recreating a virtual environment. These data suggest that visuospatial advantage in dyslexia may be confined to men. Possible explanations for this are discussed.

Trainees acquire endoscopic skills at different rates. Fundamental abilities testing could predict the amount of training required to reach a performance goal on a virtual-reality simulator.Eleven medical students were tested for fundamental abilities. Baseline endoscopic proficiency was evaluated with the GI Mentor II VR simulator (Simbionix, USA, Cleveland, OH). Subjects trained on the simulator with a defined performance goal. Subjects who achieved the goal were then reassessed.All subjects completed at least 10 trials or reached the performance goal. The10 trial group (n=6) tested better for all fundamental abilities and baseline endoscopic performance than the10 trial group (n=5). The number of trials required to reach the performance goal correlated significantly with both perceptual (r=.92, P=0.001) and visuospatial ability (r=.76, P=.03). Multiple regression showed strong correlation of all three abilities with duration of training (r=.95, P=.015).Most of the variability in acquisition of endoscopic skills can be accounted for by differences in fundamental abilities of trainees. Testing of fundamental abilities could help identify trainees who will require additional training to achieve desired performance objectives.

We determined whether feeding with powdered diet improved the visuospatial ability in female rats by checking the expression of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunit 1 (NR1) mRNA in the hippocampus. In rats fed standard pelleted diet, males performed better than females in a radial 8-arm maze task as we reported previously. We found that the expression of NR1 mRNA, which may be the key mediator in visuospatial ability in the hippocampus, was also higher in males than in females. However, in rats fed powdered diet, no sex difference was seen in the radial 8-arm maze task and the expression of NR1 mRNA in the hippocampus, since feeding with powdered diet improved the visuospatial ability with increases in the expression of NR1 mRNA in the hippocampus in females. We suggest that the sex difference in visuospatial ability is at least in part due to feeding conditions.

Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) was administered to a sample of 2735 12- to 18-year-olds in Estonia. Both a scree test and the consistent Akaike information criterion (CAIC) indicated the presence of three significant factors. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed the loadings of the items on the three factors, which were identified as the gestalt continuation found by van der Ven and Ellis [Pers. Individ. Differ. 29 (2000) 45], verbal–analytic reasoning and visuospatial ability. Further analysis of the three factors showed a higher order factor identifiable as g. Examination of age by sex differences showed that on all four factors girls performed better than boys at the age of 12, there was no sex difference at age 14, while boys performed better than girls at the age of 17, although not significantly on visuospatial ability.

Consensus is growing that rising IQ scores at least partly reflect rising population intelligence. However, there is no apparent impact in formal education, the one real world domain where it should be strongly and obviously impacting. Teachers evidently are not reporting brighter children. There is only one relevant formal study, however, which found that most Australian high school teachers surveyed did not perceive that students became brighter between 1979 and 1999. The present study investigated several possible reasons why; declining motivation in high school students masking rising intelligence, too short a time span or the wrong nation examined. The study was replicated in Australian primary school teachers who had been teaching for 20 or 30 years and in Singapore and Korea, where the environmental improvements thought to raise IQ have happened mainly in the last 40 years. Also, these nations lack the West's grave classroom motivation problems. Most Australian primary teachers did not perceive brighter children even over 30 years, but most in the two Asian nations did, particularly those in Singapore. General intelligence may have largely stopped rising in Western nations decades ago while visuospatial ability has been increasing, which with test sophistication has been pushing up IQ scores slightly. When the environmental improvements occur rapidly, teachers readily note brighter children.

Gender differences in neuropsychological functioning of patients with psychiatric disorders have been studied extensively in the last years. The available studies provide conflicting results, which can be attributed to the complexity of variables influencing cognitive sex differences. In the present study, we tried to evaluate the magnitude of gender differences in verbal and visual–spatial functions and to correlate the results with a self-rating of these abilities in healthy men and women. Ninety-seven college students (51 women and 46 men) were examined with a neuropsychological battery, focusing on verbal and visual–spatial abilities. In general, we found, that women tend to perform at a higher level than men on most verbal tests and men outperfom women on visual–spatial tasks. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning, that the effect sizes were generally small, which suggests the assumption, that the overlap in the distribution of male and female scores is much greater than the difference between them. Additionally, in a self-rating scale, men rated their spatial abilities significantly superior to those of women, while women did not rate their verbal abilities superior to those of men. In this context, the relevance of socio-cultural factors, educational factors and training on the occurrence of sex differences is highlighted, as these factors add significantly to the overall explanation of neuropsychological task-performance.

Sex differences in cognition have been the focus of intense debate for years. In this study, we examined the hypothesis that the pattern of sex differences in a visuospatial task may be differential due to environmental factors such as the participation of females in technical and scientific courses. A total of 452 undergraduate students (146 males and 306 females) participated in this study. Results showed a significant effect of academic discipline on both Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) copy and recall scores. Significant effects of gender were found only on the recall condition. This pattern of results indicates that both gender and academic discipline may influence the performance on a visuospatial task such as ROCF.

This article describes a large sex difference on a new, group-administered visuospatial task, the Judgment of Line Angle and Position (JLAP) test, and investigates the role of attentional factors in the difference. On the JLAP, adapted from a neuropsychological task (Benton et al., 1983), participants evaluate spatial attributes of lines. Study 1: College males (N = 48) outperformed females (N = 80), resulting in a large effect for sex (d = 0.85). Errors were more common on oblique (vs horizontal or vertical) lines, especially for females. Study 2: Task attributes were manipulated (N = 33 males and 36 females) to study the role of attentional factors. Findings suggest that males are more likely than females to normally attend to and be aided by geometrical reference cues.

We investigated human place learning in a computerized version of the Morris water task (VMWT) under comparable conditions to those employed by Sutherland et al. (Sutherland et al. Psychobiology, 1987;15:48-57) with rats. Participants viewed a computer-generated environment and were trained to locate a hidden goal in one half of a circular pool (region 1). The opportunity to navigate in and view cues from region 2 was systematically varied during training. Participants were then started from region 2 to assess transfer. Accurate transfer performance was dependent upon prior experience viewing distal cues from region 2 while on a trajectory to the goal, a finding we interpret as inconsistent with the automatic formation and modification of a cognitive map (O'Keefe J, Nadel L. The Hippocampus as a cognitive map. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1978). Additionally, the transfer data reported here closely match the data obtained by Sutherland et al. with rats suggesting some generality in the principles involved in place learning.

Based on Silverman and Eals' hunter-gatherer theory of the origin of sex-specific spatial attributes, the present research sought to identify the evolved mechanisms involved in hunting that contribute to the dimorphism. The focus of these studies was the relationship between three-dimensional mental rotations, the spatial test showing the largest and most reliable sex difference favoring males, and wayfinding in the woods. Space constancy was presumed to be the evolved mechanism fundamental to both of these abilities. Measures of wayfinding were derived by leading subjects individually on a circuitous route through a wooded area, during which they were stopped at prescribed places and required to set an arrow pointing in the direction the walk began. As well, subjects were eventually required to lead the experimenters back to the starting point by the most direct route. In support of the hypotheses, males excelled on the various measures of wayfinding, and wayfinding was significantly related across sexes to mental rotations scores but not to nonrotational spatial abilities or general intelligence.

This study examines how cognitive changes associated with aging impact the financial decision making capability of older Americans. We find that a decrease in cognition is associated with a decrease in financial literacy. Decreases in episodic memory, perceptual speed, and visuospatial ability are associated with a decrease in numeracy, and decreases in episodic and semantic memory are associated with a decrease in financial knowledge. A decrease in cognition also predicts a drop in self-confidence in general, but importantly, it is not associated with a drop in confidence in managing one's own finances. Participants experiencing decreases in cognition do show an increased likelihood of getting help with financial decisions; however, many participants experiencing significant drops in cognition still do not get help. This study also examines the risk factors for an older American being victimized by financial fraud. We find that overconfidence in one’s financial knowledge is a significant predictor of the odds of falling victim.

Reviews of the literature have suggested that, following anterior temporal lobectomy (ATL) for treatment of medically intractable epilepsy, most cognitive functions remain unchanged, some exhibit a relative loss compared to preoperative levels, and some cognitive functions improve. The purpose of this investigation was to identify more precisely the nature and degree of this postoperative cognitive stability, loss, and gain. Thirty-eight patients undergoing ATL received an extensive neuropsychological evaluation both preoperatively and 6 months postoperatively. Utilizing an operational definition of neuropsychological test change that was hypothesized to be sensitive to performance alterations of probable clinical significance, we found that 77% of the neuropsychological measures remained unchanged following ATL. Of the cognitive change that occurred, 58% of the changes reflected significant cognitive improvement, whereas 42% of the changes reflected relative cognitive declines. Specific results are presented in regard to nine cognitive domains (psychometric intelligence, academic achievement, language function, visuoperceptual and visuospatial ability, memory and learning ability, problem-solving skills, sensorimotor ability, auditory-perceptual function, and complex attention/concentration skills). Only the area of memory/learning showed more cognitive loss than gain, and the area of novel problem-solving ability showed the most improvement. The clinical and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.