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Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by the accumulation of hepatic fat in an inflammatory/fibrotic background. Herein, we show that the hepatic high-activity glutaminase 1 isoform (GLS1) is overexpressed in NASH. Importantly, GLS1 inhibition reduces lipid content in choline and/or methionine deprivation-induced steatotic mouse primary hepatocytes, in human hepatocyte cell lines, and in NASH mouse livers. We suggest that under these circumstances, defective glutamine fueling of anaplerotic mitochondrial metabolism and concomitant reduction of oxidative stress promotes a reprogramming of serine metabolism, wherein serine is shifted from the generation of the antioxidant glutathione and channeled to provide one-carbon units to regenerate the methionine cycle. The restored methionine cycle can induce phosphatidylcholine synthesis from thephosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase-mediated and CDP-choline pathways as well as by base-exchange reactions between phospholipids, thereby restoring hepatic phosphatidylcholine content and very-low-density lipoprotein export. Overall, we provide evidence that hepatic GLS1 targeting is a valuable therapeutic approach in NASH.

Methionine adenosyltransferase α1 (MATα1, encoded by MAT1A) is responsible for hepatic biosynthesis of S-adenosyl methionine, the principal methyl donor. MATα1 also act as a transcriptional cofactor by interacting and influencing the activity of several transcription factors. Mat1a knockout (KO) mice have increased levels of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1), but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. The aims of the current study were to identify binding partners of MATα1 and elucidate how MATα1 regulates CYP2E1 expression. We identified binding partners of MATα1 by coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) and mass spectrometry. Interacting proteins were confirmed using co-IP using recombinant proteins, liver lysates, and mitochondria. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) samples were used to confirm relevance of our findings. We found that MATα1 negatively regulates CYP2E1 at mRNA and protein levels, with the latter being the dominant mechanism. MATα1 interacts with many proteins but with a predominance of mitochondrial proteins including CYP2E1. We found that MATα1 is present in the mitochondrial matrix of hepatocytes using immunogold electron microscopy. Mat1a KO hepatocytes had reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and higher mitochondrial reactive oxygen species, both of which were normalized when MAT1A was overexpressed. In addition, KO hepatocytes were sensitized to ethanol and tumor necrosis factor α-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. Interaction of MATα1 with CYP2E1 was direct, and this facilitated CYP2E1 methylation at R379, leading to its degradation through the proteasomal pathway. Mat1a KO livers have a reduced methylated/total CYP2E1 ratio. MATα1's influence on mitochondrial function is largely mediated by its effect on CYP2E1 expression. Patients with ALD have reduced MATα1 levels and a decrease in methylated/total CYP2E1 ratio. Conclusion: Our findings highlight a critical role of MATα1 in regulating mitochondrial function by suppressing CYP2E1 expression at multiple levels.

Objective Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a complex pathology in which several dysfunctions, including alterations in metabolic pathways, mitochondrial functionality and unbalanced lipid import/export, lead to lipid accumulation and progression to inflammation and fibrosis. The enzyme glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT), the most important enzyme implicated in S-adenosylmethionine catabolism in the liver, is downregulated during NAFLD progression. We have studied the mechanism involved in GNMT downregulation by its repressor microRNA miR-873-5p and the metabolic pathways affected in NAFLD as well as the benefit of recovery GNMT expression. Methods miR-873-5p and GNMT expression were evaluated in liver biopsies of NAFLD/NASH patients. Different in vitro and in vivo NAFLD murine models were used to assess miR-873-5p/GNMT involvement in fatty liver progression through targeting of the miR-873-5p as NAFLD therapy. Results We describe a new function of GNMT as an essential regulator of Complex II activity in the electron transport chain in the mitochondria. In NAFLD, GNMT expression is controlled by miR-873-5p in the hepatocytes, leading to disruptions in mitochondrial functionality in a preclinical murine non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) model. Upregulation of miR-873-5p is shown in the liver of NAFLD/NASH patients, correlating with hepatic GNMT depletion. Importantly, NASH therapies based on anti-miR-873-5p resolve lipid accumulation, inflammation and fibrosis by enhancing fatty acid β-oxidation in the mitochondria. Therefore, miR-873-5p inhibitor emerges as a potential tool for NASH treatment. Conclusion GNMT participates in the regulation of metabolic pathways and mitochondrial functionality through the regulation of Complex II activity in the electron transport chain. In NAFLD, GNMT is repressed by miR-873-5p and its targeting arises as a valuable therapeutic option for treatment., Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • The microRNA miR-873-5p is upregulated in human and murine NAFLD/NASH livers. • miR-873-5p upregulation downregulates GNMT in the liver. • miR-873-5p inhibition reduces liver steatosis, inflammation and fibrosis in in vivo NAFLD mouse models. • GNMT is a hepatic metabolic hub with mitochondria activity through the regulation of Complex II of the ETC. • Mitochondrial GNMT deficiency compromises ETC functionality and metabolism.

This work was supported by grants from NIH (US Department of Health and Human services)-R01AT001576 (S.C.L., J.M.M., and M.L.M.-C.), Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad: SAF2017-87301-R (M.L.M.-C.), Gobierno Vasco-Departamento de Salud 2013111114 (to M.L.M.-C.), BIOEF (Basque Foundation for Innovation and Health Research: EiTB Maratoia BIO15/CA/016/ BD (M.L.M.-C.), ELKARTEK 2016, Departamento de Industria del Gobierno Vasco (to M.L.M.-C.), Asociación Española contra el Cáncer (to T.C.D, P.F.-T. and M.L.M.-C.), Mitotherapeutix (to M.L.M.-C.), Daniel Alagille award from EASL (to T.C.D), Fundación Científica de la Asociación Española Contra el Cancer (AECC Scientific Foundation) Rare Tumor Calls 2017 (to M.L.M, J.M.B., and M.A), La Caixa Foundation Program (to M.L.M, J.M.B.), FIS: PI15/00892 (to M.F.F), FIS: PI15/01132 and FIS PI18/01075 (to J.M.B.), (to J.M.B.), FIS: PI14/00399 and PI17/ 00022 (to M.J.P.), Miguel Servet Program (CON14/00129 to J.M.B.), Ramon y Cajal Program (RYC-2015-17755 to M.J.P.), GRUPIN14-052 (to M.F.), PI14/00962 Instituto Carlos III (to J.B.), AECC Scientific Foundation (to J.B.), World Wide Cancer Research (to J.B.), Programma di Ricerca Regione-Università 2007-2009 and 2011-2012, Regione Emilia-Romagna (to E.V.), “Diputación Foral Gipuzkoa” (DFG15/010, DFG16/004 to J.M.B.), BIOEF (Basque Foundation for Innovation and Health Research: EiTB Maratoia BIO15/CA/016/BD to J.M.B.), Department of Health of the Basque Country (2013111173 to J.M.B.; 2015111100 to M.J.P.). Ciberehd_ISCIII_MINECO is funded by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III. “Hepacare Project” from Fundación La Caixa, Spain (to M.A.A and C.B.), BiO-Eusko Fundazioa project BIO15/CA/011 (to M.A.A and C.B.). We thank this work produced with the support of a 2017 Leonardo Grant for Researchers and Cultural Creators, BBVA Foundation (to M.V.R.). We thank MINECO for the Severo Ochoa Excellence Accreditation (SEV-2016-0644)., Fernández-Ramos, D., Fernández-Tussy, P., Lopitz-Otsoa, F., Gutiérrez-de-Juan, V., Navasa, N., Barbier-Torres, L., Zubiete-Franco, I., Simón, J., Fernández, A.F., Arbelaiz, A., Aransay, A.M., Lavín, J.L., Beraza, N., Perugorria, M.J., Banales, J.M., Villa, E., Fraga, M.F., Anguita, J., Avila, M.A., Berasain, C., Iruzibieta, P., Crespo, J., Lu, S.C., Varela-Rey, M., Mato, J.M., Delgado, T.C., Martínez-Chantar, M.L.

Background & Aims Glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT) expression is decreased in some patients with severe non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Gnmt deficiency in mice ( Gnmt -KO) results in abnormally elevated serum levels of methionine and its metabolite S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), and this leads to rapid liver steatosis development. Autophagy plays a critical role in lipid catabolism (lipophagy), and defects in autophagy have been related to liver steatosis development. Since methionine and its metabolite SAMe are well known inactivators of autophagy, we aimed to examine whether high levels of both metabolites could block autophagy-mediated lipid catabolism. Methods We examined methionine levels in a cohort of 358 serum samples from steatotic patients. We used hepatocytes cultured with methionine and SAMe, and hepatocytes and livers from Gnmt -KO mice. Results We detected a significant increase in serum methionine levels in steatotic patients. We observed that autophagy and lipophagy were impaired in hepatocytes cultured with high methionine and SAMe, and that Gnmt -KO livers were characterized by an impairment in autophagy functionality, likely caused by defects at the lysosomal level. Elevated levels of methionine and SAMe activated PP2A by methylation, while blocking PP2A activity restored autophagy flux in Gnmt -KO hepatocytes, and in hepatocytes treated with SAMe and methionine. Finally, normalization of methionine and SAMe levels in Gnmt -KO mice using a methionine deficient diet normalized the methylation capacity, PP2A methylation, autophagy, and ameliorated liver steatosis. Conclusions These data suggest that elevated levels of methionine and SAMe can inhibit autophagic catabolism of lipids contributing to liver steatosis.

Glycine-N-methyltransferase (GNMT) is essential to preserve liver homeostasis. Cirrhotic patients show low expression of GNMT that is absent in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) samples. Accordingly, GNMT deficiency in mice leads to steatohepatitis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and HCC. Lack of GNMT triggers NK cell activation in GNMT(-/-) mice and depletion of TRAIL significantly attenuates acute liver injury and inflammation in these animals. Chronic inflammation leads to fibrogenesis, further contributing to the progression of chronic liver injury regardless of the etiology. The aim of our study is to elucidate the implication of TRAIL-producing NK cells in the progression of chronic liver injury and fibrogenesis. For this we generated double TRAIL(-/-)/GNMT(-/-) mice in which we found that TRAIL deficiency efficiently protected the liver against chronic liver injury and fibrogenesis in the context of GNMT deficiency. Next, to better delineate the implication of TRAIL-producing NK cells during fibrogenesis we performed bile duct ligation (BDL) to GNMT(-/-) and TRAIL(-/-)/GNMT(-/-) mice. In GNMT(-/-) mice, exacerbated fibrogenic response after BDL concurred with NK1.1(+) cell activation. Importantly, specific inhibition of TRAIL-producing NK cells efficiently protected GNMT(-/-) mice from BDL-induced liver injury and fibrogenesis. Finally, TRAIL(-/-)/GNMT(-/-) mice showed significantly less fibrosis after BDL than GNMT(-/-) mice further underlining the relevance of the TRAIL/DR5 axis in mediating liver injury and fibrogenesis in GNMT(-/-) mice. Finally, in vivo silencing of DR5 efficiently protected GNMT(-/-) mice from BDL-liver injury and fibrogenesis, overall underscoring the key role of the TRAIL/DR5 axis in promoting fibrogenesis in the context of absence of GNMT. Overall, our work demonstrates that TRAIL-producing NK cells actively contribute to liver injury and further fibrogenesis in the pathological context of GNMT deficiency, a molecular scenario characteristic of chronic human liver disease.

Resveratrol is growth-suppressive and pro-apoptotic in liver cancer cells. Methionine adenosyltransferase 2B (MAT2B) encodes for two dominant variants V1 and V2 that positively regulate growth, and V1 is anti-apoptotic when overexpressed. Interestingly, crystal structure analysis of MAT2B protein (MATβ) protomer revealed two resveratrol binding pockets, which raises the question of the role of MAT2B in resveratrol biological activities. We found that resveratrol induced the expression of MAT2BV1 and V2 in a time- and dose-dependent manner by increasing transcription, mRNA, and protein stabilization. Following resveratrol treatment, HuR expression increased first, followed by SIRT1 and MAT2B. SIRT1 induction contributes to increased MAT2B transcription whereas HuR induction increased MAT2B mRNA stability. MATβ interacts with HuR and SIRT1, and resveratrol treatment enhanced these interactions while reducing the interaction between MATβ and MATα2. Because MATβ lowers the Ki of MATα2 for S-adenosylmethionine (AdoMet), this allowed steady-state AdoMet level to rise. Interaction among MATβ, SIRT1, and HuR increased stability of these proteins. Induction of MAT2B is a compensatory response to resveratrol as knocking down MAT2BV1 potentiated the resveratrol pro-apoptotic and growth-suppressive effects, whereas the opposite occurred with V1 overexpression. The same effect on growth occurred with MAT2BV2. In conclusion, resveratrol induces HuR, SIRT1, and MAT2B expression; the last may represent a compensatory response against apoptosis and growth inhibition. However, MATβ induction also facilitates SIRT1 activation, as the interaction stabilizes SIRT1. This complex interplay among MATβ, HuR, and SIRT1 has not been previously reported and suggests that these proteins may regulate each other's signaling.