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Integrated pest management has been implemented as a general practice by EU legislation. As weed control actually is the most important crop protection measure in maize for Western Europe, the new legislation will have its impact. The question is of course which systems can be successfully implemented in practice with respect to labour efficiency and economical parameters. During 3 successive growing seasons (2007, 2008, 2009) weed control in maize was evaluated, the main focus was put on different techniques of integrated weed control and was compared with chemical weed control. Additionally, during 4 successive growing seasons (2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014) two objects based on integrated weed control and two objects based on mechanical weed control were compared to about twenty different objects of conventional chemical weed control. One of the objects based on mechanical weed control consisted of treatment with the flex-tine harrow before and after emergence in combination with chemical weed control at a reduced rate in 3-4 leave stage. The second one consisted of broadcast mechanical treatments before and after emergence followed by a final in-row application of herbicides and an inter-row cultivation at 6-7(8) leave stage. All trials were conducted on the Experimental farm of Bottelare HoGent-UGent on a sandy loam soil. Maize was growing in 1/3 crop rotation. The effect on weed growth as well as the economic impact of the different applications was evaluated. Combining chemical and mechanical weed control is a possible option in conventional farming but the disadvantages must be taken into account. A better planned weed control based on the real present weed-population in combination with a carefully thought-out choice of herbicides should also be considered as an IPM--approach.

Wheat production in African countries is a major challenge for their development, considering their increasing consumption of wheat flour products. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, wheat and wheat-based products are the important imported food products although there is a potential for the cultivation of small grain cereals such as durum wheat, wheat and triticale. Trials done in Lubumbashi in the Katanga Province have shown that Septoria Leaf Blotch, Septoria Glume Blotch and Fusarium head blight are the main constraints to the efficient development of these cultures. Some varieties of Elite Spring Wheat, High Rainfall Wheat, Triticale and Durum Wheat from CIMMYT were followed during 4 growing seasons and agronomic characteristics and their levels of disease resistance were recorded. Correlations of agronomic characteristics with yields showed that in most cases, thousand kernel weight is the parameter that has the most influence on the yield level (p < 0.0001). The analysis of variance for all diseases showed that there were significant effects related to the year, the species and the interaction years x species. Triticale varieties seem to have a better resistance against the two forms of Septoria compared to wheat varieties but, they seem to be more sensitive to Fusarium Head Blight than wheat varieties. However, the Fusarium Head Blight has a rather low incidence in Lubumbashi.

The development of new crop species and their associated agro-ecosystems led simultaneously to the emergence of new pathogens (Stukenbrock and McDonald, 2008). This research focused on the recent emergence of powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis) on triticale (x Triticosecale Wittmack). In a first part, we aimed to gain insights into the evolutionary origin of this pathogen on its new host. A secondary aim was to investigate the presence of powdery mildew resistance in current commercial triticale cultivars, including its cellular basis of resistance. To address these research goals, we have pursued a molecular, pathological and cytological approach. This discussion will reflect on the experimental findings described in this research and their impact for future management of powdery mildew on triticale and other cereals.

In order to assess the impact of crop rotation and nitrogen fertilisation in an agro system, a long-term field experiment has been established in 2006 at the experimental farm of Ghent University and University College Ghent (Bottelare-Belgium). The trial comprises 11 different crop rotations in combination with four nitrogen fertilizer regimes. The different crop rotations are monoculture of grain- and silage maize, whether or not followed by Italian ryegrass, permanent and temporary grass-clover and six other rotations of maize in combination with potatoes, wheat, fodder beet and peas. Normal crop husbandry measures were taken for each crop. The experiment was set up on a sandy loam soil, according to a strip plot design with 3 replicates. In the course of the experiment, crop rotation was the horizontal factor and fertilizer nitrogen (N) the vertical factor. The effect of crop rotation on yield, disease pressure, soil structure and earthworm abundance were evaluated yearly. In autumn 2013 the weed seed bank was analysed for each plot using the seedling emergence method. The obtained results indicated differences between the different crop rotations.

During five subsequent growing seasons field experiments were carried out at the experimental farm of the University College Ghent (Belgium) to evaluate the selectivity and efficacy of herbicides for chemical weed control in triticale (x Triticosecale Wittmack). The experiments were set up on a sandy loam soil, according to a completely randomised block design with four replicates. Several herbicides and combinations of herbicides were applied pre- and post-emergence, at different rates. The influence of the different treatments on weed diversity, weed density, growth inhibition and chlorosis of the crop and grain yield was studied. Results obtained from these field trials indicated differences between the different treatments.

The food production in Katanga is inadequate and causes food insecurity for more than 400.000 people. Nowadays the Katanga province relies for more than 75 % on imported wheat and wheat flour from neighbouring countries. The absence of adapted germplasm is one of the mean reasons for the low production levels of small grains and as consequence the disinteresting of farmers for producing wheat. To select well adapted genotypes a screening test with wheat (T. aestivum) and triticale (x Triticosecale Wittm.) was establish during the rainy season of 2006-2007 at the farm Kasapa (25 km outside Lubumbashi). Glume blotch (S. nodorum teleomorph: Leptosphaeria nodorum) was the most dominant disease during the rainy season 2006 - 2007. Glume blotch could be detected on leaves and ears of wheat as well as of triticale. Fusarium head blight (Fusarium sp. teleomorph: Gibberella sp.) was also present but to a less extend. Rust or mildew fungus were not recorded on any genotype. The disease pressure made it possible to screen more disease tolerant genotypes of wheat and triticale. The differences were most clear for ear glume blotch but especially on triticale differences between FHB tolerant and susceptible genotypes could be made. For triticale and wheat respectively 25 and 32 % of the genotypes were put in the breeding pole to select new varieties.

This paper presents the results of laboratory tests on a selection of weeds (Viola arvensis, Polygonum persicaria, Chamomilla recutita, Chenopodium album, Veronica persicaria, Alopecurus myosusroides) to investigate the efficiency of flupyrsulfuron-methyl plus metsutfuronmethyl (Lexus XPE) in combination with different adjuvants. The efficiency of the herbicide improved in combination of adjuvants. The level of phytotoxicity of the adjuvants-herbicide treatments appllied varied among the different weed species.

This paper presents an in vitro test to screen the pathogenicity of different Rhizoctonia solani isolates on a host range. The level of aggressivity of the different isolates was different for several host plants tested. There were significant differences between the crops and the isolates tested. In general, the disease level was higher on beans, lettuce and cabbage. In carrot and rye grass the level of infection was lower for the isolates of R. solani tested. The potato isolates of R. solani were less aggressive than the isolates coming from maize, fodder beet and sugar beet. The R. solani isolates were also biochemically characterized by pectic zymograms: the isolates Rs0401 (from maize) and Rs0504 (from sugar beet) belong both to the anastomosis group AG2-2.

Weed control in sweet lupins is still a problem. Especially the phytotoxicity of herbicides in sweet lupins is not enough studied. Therefore a screening with 16 selected herbicides and 4 lupin varieties has been set up. During the growing season 2005, 10 of the tested herbicides were applied in pre-emergence, 6 in post-emergence. Pre-emergence: Most of the active matters tested in pre-emergence were not phytotoxic for lupins. Pendimethalin (1000 g/ha), linuron (500 g/ha), chlorotoluron (1500 g/ha), prosulfocarb (2400 g/ha), clomazone (72 g/ha), isoxaben (100 g/ha), metamitron (1050 g/ha) and dimethenamid-P (720 g/ha) were applied without causing any significant phytotoxic symptoms. Only the lupins treated with aclonifen (1200 g/ha) showed a significant growth inhibition, 3 weeks after treatment. Significantly more chlorosis was noticed when the lupins were treated with aclonifen or with diflufenican, in preemergence. Post-emergence: In post-emergence, diflufenican (50 g/ha) did not cause any crop damage. Florasulam (5 g/ha) caused almost 100% necrosis in L. albus as well as in L. luteus. Bentazon (652 g/ha), thifensulfuron-methyl (15 g/ha) and metribuzin (175 g/ha) caused obvious necrosis and growth inhibition of the crop. The growth inhibition was significantly more severe for lupins treated with bentazon than if they were treated with thifensulfuron-methyl or metribuzin. Three weeks after treatment, clomazone (90 g/ha) and diflufenican (50 g/ha), did not cause any crop injury at all. The results indicated an interesting range of active matters which can be applied in pre-emergence, but weed control in post-emergence stays difficult.

The overall performance of chemical and biological plant protection products is enhanced by the use of adjuvants in the formulation (formulation adjuvants) or in the spray tank (spray adjuvants). Both types of adjuvants aim to stabilize the formulation, to improve the efficiency of the active ingredients and to reduce application and environmental risks. As an important part of the formulation, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the environmental impact and toxicology of adjuvants can not always be considered as inert. However, little is known of their impact as part of plant protection products compared with the active substances. Therefore an experimental framework is needed as a tool for a consistent environmental legislation.

Fusarium species cause not only root, stem and ear rot with severe reductions in crop yield, they produce also toxic secondary metabolites (mycotoxins) such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA). During several growing seasons the presence of Fusarium spp was followed up. DON and ZEA were determined and related to infection levels. The distribution of DON and ZEA in the different plant parts was studied as well as the influence of the ensiling process on the mycotoxin content. More or less important varietal differences in susceptibility for Fusarium spp. could be detected. DON and ZEA were clearly present in most of the analysed samples. No clear relationship could be detected between visual disease symptoms and mycotoxin content. The accumulation of DON and ZEA was different for the analysed aerial plant parts. The ensiling process gave no reduction of the mycotoxin content.

Fusarium wilts, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum, are important diseases of horticultural and agricultural crops and lead to significant yield losses. The pathogen infects the roots and colonizes the vascular tissue, leading to wilting and finally death of the plant. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficacy of amendment of green compost and a Trichoderma hamatum strain against Fusarium wilt of radish. The substrate effects and the effect of a Trichoderma strain were tested in a potting soil bioassay. The tested composts lowered the disease level and had a positive influence on the plant yield (fresh weight and dry weight). Nothwithstanding, only a small dosis effect of the amendment was observed. In the presence of the tested Trichoderma hamatum strain no significant lower disease level was observed. Furthermore, a minor effect on plant yield (fresh weight and dry weight) was observed compared to the amendment with only green compost. Maybe the pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum strain and the Trichoderma strain competed for nutrients, iron could be a limiting factor. One possible approach to improve biological control may be the application of combinations of biocontrol agents.

Without foliage destruction an efficient harvest is impossible. Potatoes for the fresh market are often harvested when the foliage is still heavy green due to tuber size and starch content that must be limited. Tubers from immature vines are typically very susceptible to skinning and mechanical injury during harvest. Young tubers from immature vines need more time after foliage destruction to set periderm than tubers from senescent vines where the formation of periderm is already started. Spray schemes based on metoxuron, carfentrazone-ethyl and diquat at a dose of 300 g/ha caused slower leaf and stem desiccation. Over the 3 growing seasons it could be concluded that mechanical foliage destruction in combination with carfentrazone-ethyl + mineral oil promoted periderm formation better than the other desiccation schemes tested. A split treatment with diquat at 300 g/ha or carfentrazone-ehtyl + mineral oil followed by a second application of diquat or carfentrazone-ethyl can led to a slower periderm formation and even give secondary growth. A double treatment of diquat (300 g/ha) or carfentrazone-ethyl + mineral oil followed by diquat (600 g/ha) after 3 days gave satisfactory results. Rhizoctonia tuber infection increased with a longer field period after treatment. In general the increase was more pronounced for the spray schemes where skin set of the tubers was less fast.

A total of 94 isolates of Phytophthora infestans were collected from disease outbreaks in commercial potato crops and private gardens in 2002 and 2003. The isolates were recovered successfully from single lesions of diseased potato foliage. Not from all isolates pure cultures were obtained due to contaminations with Fusarium species and bacteria. The structure of the population was analysed phenotypically. Characteristics of the isolates included in vitro growth rate, mating type, in vitro sensitivity to the phenylamide fungicide metalaxyl-M and allozyme genotype at glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (Gpi) and peptidase (Pep) loci. Significant differences in in vitro growth rate were observed among the 52 isolates by comparing the main radial growth of the isolates after 7 days. Forty seven from the isolates tested were the Al mating type. Only one isolate was characterized as A2 mating type. Isolates with sensitive, intermediate and resistant responses to metalaxyl-M were detected in the populations. Forty isolates had a growth of less then 40 % at 5 ppm metalaxyl-M. Three isolates had a growth of less then 40 % at 100 ppm metalaxyl-M. Eight isolates had a growth of more then 40 % at 5 and 100 ppm metalaxyl-M. Cellulose acetate electrophoresis was used to examine Gpi and Pep banding pattern of the population of P. infestans attacking potato in Flanders. All the isolates tested produced the 100/100 Gpi isozyme electromorph. Five different allozyme genotypes of the Pep loci were identified: 92/92, 96/96, 100/100, 92/100, 83/100.

Fusarium head blight is an important disease of cereal crops caused by Fusarium species. It causes not only a reduction in yield, but most Fusarium species (F. graminearum. F. culmorum, F. avenaceum. F. poae) produce also a range of toxic metabolites such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA). The evaluation of Fusarium species was followed up under natural infection conditions during the growing seasons 2001--2002 and 2002--2003 in two varietal winter wheat experiments on the experimental farm of the Hogeschool Gent at Bottelare. Disease pressure, DON and ZEA content, different Fusarium species as well as growth and yield parameters were determined. In both years there were significant differences between the varieties concerning the susceptibility to Fusarium and the DON content. ZEA was not found in the kernels. The mean deoxynivalenol (DON) content was in 2002 (1,126 mg/kg) higher than in 2003 (0.879 mg/kg) although the mean disease severity was bigger in 2003 than in 2002 what means that the DON content was not always correlated with the disease severity. The Fusarium species most frequently identified in our two field trials (Bottelare) were F. graminearum and F. culmorum Varietal differences in susceptibility to Fusarium species and DON contamination could be detected.