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Due to their high level of complexity and transnational character, environmental and climate change issues increasingly require specialised knowledge and international development strategies. One institution that regularly provides decision-makers with such scientific and international policy expertise is the think tank. With their particular competencies, environmentally-related and climate change related think tanks have become key actors in modern environmental governance systems. Since many African countries have a high proportion of smallholder farmers who experience daily food insecurity and poverty, the transformation of African agriculture has been prioritised in the agenda of many think tanks, international development initiatives, and aid agencies. This applies equally to the Nairobi-based Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), which was initiated by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in 2006 and is often labelled as an agricultural think tank. Through its activities, AGRA aims to improve food security in African countries by establishing industrial agricultural practices which were integral elements of earlier Green Revolutions. Accordingly, AGRA widely promotes the application of hybrid seeds, synthetic fertilisers, and other technological solutions to enhance agricultural productivity. However, AGRA and its key partners have increasingly been criticised by experts who claim that AGRA's agenda does not sufficiently address the needs of African smallholder farmers and that it mainly represents political and corporate interests from the Global North. Against this background, this study explored the role of AGRA within the current agricultural transformation in Africa. To this end, the research project analysed AGRA's organisational form, the key elements of its agenda and its network of partners from a think tank perspective. The study further examined how and on what levels AGRA and its partners shape environmental governance processes inside and outside of Africa. Multiple methods were combined to enhance the validity of the findings. These included a desktop study, a network analysis, a discourse-related case study, and key informant interviews. The findings reveal that AGRA is a hybrid organisation that combines key features of a think tank with strong operational dimensions. The results also demonstrated that due to its unidimensional agenda, AGRA fails to stimulate sustainable agricultural transformation in Africa. AGRA's partnerships are characterised by a Global North bias on the decision- making level, with the alliance displaying typical features of an ideological advocacy network. The shaping of governance processes by AGRA and its partners was observed at both national and intergovernmental levels.

Globally, industrial crop production practices are of significant environmental concern, with some studies suggesting that smallholder farming systems could provide a more sustainable alternative. Local seed systems are at the core of smallholder agriculture and, although typically characterised as inefficient, can account for 60-100% of seed materials planted. Such systems are envisaged to remain as dominant seed sources in the foreseeable future, especially in the face of climate change and socio-economic challenges. However, there is a limited understanding of how local seed systems persist in the face of adversities. In this nexus, local seed systems are seen as key areas for enhancing resilience as they have strong links to food security and livelihoods in smallholder farming communities. Based on case studies from Zimbabwe, a country with more than 70% of its population dependent on smallholder agriculture, and a prolonged history of acute economic and ecological challenges, this study examines the concept of resilience in smallholder seed systems. The research aimed to explore interactions between the management of seed by smallholder farmers and social and ecological factors to understand their influence on the resilience of local seed systems. The history of local seed systems in Zimbabwe is explored, as well as the constraints faced by smallholder farmers and the innovations they have developed. The research characterises the activities of smallholder farmers and the quality of seeds circulating in local seed systems and examines how actors and institutions shape such characteristics. Building on critical theoretical debates around social-ecological systems, complex adaptive systems and resilience, an analysis is provided of how local seed systems interact with social and ecological factors, thus developing a conceptual understanding of how resilience is enabled or constrained in these systems. Case studies were selected in the Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe and Chimanimani Districts of Zimbabwe. Using an interdisciplinary research approach, qualitative and quantitative data collection methods were used, including household surveys, key informant interviews, participatory observations, and laboratory experiments. The findings show that history profoundly influences the social and ecological factors affecting local seed systems and informs how smallholder farmers have sustained these systems in the face of adversities. The innovations of smallholder farmers are emphasised alongside the repertoire of seed management options they used to respond to social and ecological adversities. Although traditional cultural practices to sustain local seed systems are waning, other forms of institutional arrangements driven by non-govenmental organisations are emerging, such as seed fairs, field days and community seed banks. These emergent activities have provided new platforms that promote local seed systems. Formal seed systems do not offer such opportunities, as they operate in a rigid, predetermined and highly regulated manner. However, an increased focus on local seed markets may conflict with traditional norms that view seeds as common heritage assets openly exchanged among farmers. A central premise is that local seed systems are shaped by non-linear and complex interactions of nested ecological and social factors. The demonstrated resilience behaviour of these systems challenges the appropriateness of prescriptive and mechanistic interventions such as seed aid. Ten key principles are proposed that characterise the resilience of local seed systems. The thesis emphasises the importance of integrating the principles into policy and practice to advance seed and food security of smallholder farmers.

Kelp are large seaweeds that provide a variety of contributions to humans and the environment. In South Africa, kelps forests are expanding as a consequence of climate change. In light of this expansion, assessing perceptions and values around kelp may contribute to the implementation of successful marine resource management initiatives. The lack of consideration of non-market values is a gap in kelp valuation studies with kelp ecosystems and their use rarely valued outside of classical economic valuation frameworks. This study aims to fill this research gap, with the intention to elicit perceptions about other value dimensions related to kelp. The study investigates the attitudes and perceptions of value of three groups of actors' (Recreational Users and/or Coastal Community Members, Environmental Managers and Conservationists, and Kelp and/or Abalone Industry Actors) towards kelp in the Western Cape region of South Africa. This is done using the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services' (IPBES) conceptual framework, that considers: (i) kelp as a facet of nature, and (ii) kelp's contributions to people as foci of value that contribute to quality of life. The results of the study indicate that the perceived value of kelp extends far beyond its economic value as a harvested resource. Rather, actors highly value kelp's ecological and social contributions, and have strong relational values towards kelp, recognizing its role in enhancing their quality of life and well-being. Areas of dissonances in valuing kelp's contributions — such as differences in perceptions around kelp's ability to increase one's safety from extreme natural events, or its importance as a source of food and feed for domestic animals — are attributed to individuals' held values as well as their socio-demographic characteristics and situational contexts. While actors did not display significant negative perceptions around kelp, Kelp and/or Abalone Industry Actors indicated frustrations with kelp management strategies and kelp concession permit allocation processes. In turn, 27% of Kelp and/or Abalone Industry Actors perceived inequality in the kelp sector, contributing to a reduction in their appreciation of kelp. The dissertation makes a case for integrated marine resource management solutions aimed towards just and sustainable futures through the recognition of the plurality and complexity of values around kelp. A critique of the IPBES conceptual framework as a methodology is also included, suggesting that its utility is dependent on the objectives of its application. It is recommended that NCP should be considered within the context of governance and access dimensions to elicit a holistic view on assigned values and perceptions towards nature.

The utilisation of wild products is a mainstay of household livelihoods for millions of forest and rural dwellers worldwide. While many are used for subsistence purposes, some wild products are also exploited commercially. Commercialisation has often coincided with state-led conservation strategies that have brought previously unregulated resources under state regulation. Mopane worms are a caterpillar phase of the Imbrasia belina moth, used as a household food source and, increasingly, part of a lucrative cross-border trade in southern Africa. Across Botswana and South Africa, the statutory regulation of these resources is overlaid upon customary forms of governance that continue to regulate resource access and use. The effectiveness of such interactions is important for the success or failure of different governance arrangements and resource-based livelihoods. Using the cross-border trade of mopane worms as a lens, this research examines the ways in which actors navigate different governance systems, including the complexities of informal trade. In doing so, the research aims to improve understanding of the implications of the interplay between different governance arrangements and informality and their influence in configuring access to resources and cross-border markets. A key finding is that the inadvertent consequence of integrating multiple forms of governance and resultant interactions has led to the emergence of constraints that impact resource users across the cross-border trade chain. Interactions between statutory and customary governance systems have, in turn, led to the emergence of informality as an adaptive strategy across the trade. The study demonstrates that the informal and cross-border nature of mopane worm trade compels actors to use their agency to adopt multiple strategies to navigate complex governance arrangements. This in turn results in an uneven distribution of constraints and opportunities across the trade chain. Power imbalances shape diverse and complex forms of social relations, affect access to resources and markets, and marginalise destitute actors. Fragmented governance arrangements benefit actors with privileged access to market information, knowledge, capital, and resources, enabling them to navigate the constraints and incompatibilities that characterise informal cross-border trade. The study underscores the need to streamline statutory, customary, and informal governance approaches particularly as the three systems are not separate but dynamic, and to pursue an unambiguous, pro-poor agenda, focused on safeguarding informal, resource-based livelihoods and the sustainable use of mopane worms.

Many smallholder farmers in southern Africa rely on crop production as their main livelihood source. However, they often suffer from a lack of appropriate seed as well as high levels of food insecurity. Interventions such as community seed production, seed aid, and input subsidies are used to address these concerns. However, the relationship between seed security and food security has been understudied. This study thus aimed to explore the factors that have an impact on the relationship between seed security and food security. This was done to enhance understanding about the conceptual linkages between the dimensions of seed security, which include availability, access, and utilisation, and those of household-level food security, which include dietary diversity and food consumption. The case study was conducted across two sites in Chimanimani district of Zimbabwe. Methods included both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. Quantitative data were subjected to statistical analyses while qualitative data were analysed for themes and trends. Results showed the dominant role of informal seed systems in ensuring improved access to affordable and timely seed to smallholder farmers. Informal seed sources were more reliable than formal sources in ensuring that seed was available on time and in closer proximity to households. Seeds sourced informally also showed comparable quality to that from formal sources. The relationship between seed security and food security was shown to be complex and contextual rather than direct or one-directional. Seed security does not necessarily equate to food security, nor does seed insecurity necessarily lead to food insecurity. Although timeliness and proximity of seed affect its availability, these did not directly relate to access to food. Similarly, household assets and income correlated with better food security status, but did not always ensure access to seed. This is because farmers' seed sources were predicated on non-financial factors such as social relations. The quality of farmers' seed was essential in ensuring that adequate food was produced. The thesis argues that the combined factors of seed availability, access and utilisation are essential in ensuring better crop productivity and improved food access. Findings underscore the manner in which household determinants such as assets, farming practices and geographical characteristics, as well as broader contextual factors, affect and influence the relationship between seed and food security. These results imply that interventions such as community seed production, seed aid, and input subsidies do not automatically result in improved seed security and therefore food security. Efforts to enhance seed and food security should be informed by specific household characteristics that take account of wider contextual factors such as climate, as well as socioeconomic and political processes that have a historical influence as well as a continuously evolving effect on farmers' seed and food security.

Natural resource governance in Africa is characterised by increased commercialisation of natural resources, the promotion of community-based natural resource management, and a re-appropriation of traditional authorities and customary law as evidenced by their inclusion in statutory frameworks. Yet, knowledge of the interaction and effect of these multiple governance arrangements on local communities is limited. Using the lens of devil’s claw (Harpagophytum spp.), a commercial non-timber forest product, this research examines the interface between statutory, traditional and comanagement governance systems; the broader historical and political-economic contexts that shape governance systems; livelihood and sustainability outcomes at the local level; and the role of power in determining environmental, social and economic outcomes. The research adopted a case study method with three study sites selected in the Zambezi Region, Namibia – Balyerwa Conservancy, Lubuta Community Forest and Sachinga. All rural communal areas, selection was based on their distinct governance arrangements, including a range of traditional and co-management institutions, development interventions and statutory regulation. Qualitative methods were used and included questionnaires, focus group discussions, interviews, participant observation and documentary evidence. An institutional mode of analysis and a political ecology approach were applied. Theoretical perspectives to inform the research were drawn from discourses on governance, institutions, political ecology, power and access. The novelty in using a political ecology approach to develop adaptive governance theory was to move beyond understandings of the conscious mechanisms of institutions embodied in their structure, to a more nuanced understanding of socially-embedded institutions and the unconscious mechanisms that also determine social and environmental outcomes. The empirical knowledge gained from this research shows that both structural and socially-embedded institutional constraints are hindering the objectives of non-timber forest product governance. The results of this research affirm that governance is hybridising and that dichotomised descriptions of governance as customary or statutory, self-organising or hierarchical, do not capture the complexity of these evolving fusions of governance at the local level. Where a multiplicity of institutions existed at the local level, the role of the State was diminished and where co-management was in place, communities benefited from non-governmental organisation support which enabled greater benefits for harvesters and more sustainable practices. However, power was not restructured under such arrangements and differentials in access, knowledge, decision-making and benefits remained. Where co-management was not in place, harvesters were not supported in their harvesting activities and were most vulnerable to exploitation by traditional leaders and buyers. This exacerbated competition over the resource and unsustainable harvesting was more prevalent. Devil’s claw was used as a traditional medicine by some members of these communities but did not hold significant socio-cultural value. Customary systems of management for devil’s claw were therefore weak or absent and oversight of the resource was perceived to be the jurisdiction of the State. Statutory regulation of devil’s claw was however found to be ineffective; when in place, the State perceived the co-management institutions to be responsible for monitoring and evaluation. The implementation of quotas, traceability and better pricing from exporters exerted a greater influence than regulation in promoting sustainability. In the absence of non-governmental support and exporters adhering to quotas, unsustainable harvesting prevailed. A central finding is that alteration, the bending or breaking of rules by local communities, is a strategy to cope with economic precariousness that is inflicted by broader political-economic conditions. This affirms the need for an alternative economic logic to be examined that incorporates non-timber forest products into diverse agroforestry production systems that stimulate markets within rather than external to localities and draws on existing cultural practices and preferences to shape landscapes and economies in more holistic, equitable ways. The research concludes that benefits for harvesters and the sustainability of devil’s claw are currently hindered by institutional complexity, overlapping mandates, insufficient value of the resource at the local level and a failure to instil harvester autonomy. To address these structural and sociallyembedded institutional constraints severalrecommendations are made. First, to shift co-management from decentralisation to bottom-up democratisation by devolving authority, not just responsibility, to the resource users themselves. By enabling the freedom to experiment, socially-embedded institutional constraints such as dominant narratives of ‘traditional’ and ‘uneducated’ that perpetuate unproductivity and disincentivise learning can be reframed. Second, to remove unnecessary and inefficient bureaucratic layers through re-evaluating the social scale at which natural resource management would work best and scale-up in responsibility as required to match ecological and functional scale. This would diffuse the decision-making power of the traditional authorities and the ineffectiveness of the State in communal areas whilst maintaining a role for these institutions. Lastly, to enhance market transparency to promote the mutually beneficial and regulating role between harvesters and exporters, and to emphasise the commercialisation of non-timber forest products with socio-cultural value, robust customary systems of management and local markets. The objective is not to eliminate statutory governance in favour of customary governance, nor to denounce traditional authorities in favour of co-management institutions, but to democratise power in brokering new invited spaces of modern rural governance. This study contributes to governance theory by conceptualising a framework that addresses the structural and socially-embedded institutional constraints hindering adaptive governance of NTFPs and which offers an operational solution to balance power in a bottom-up process of democratisation where legal pluralism is prevalent.

The trade of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), also known as biotrade, has existed for hundreds of years - as has the traditional knowledge associated with such products. More recently, this form of trade has advanced to include genetic resource components found within natural resources (bioprospecting). International agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Nagoya Protocol came into force in 1993 and 2010 respectively, to ensure that biological diversity is conserved, sustainably utilised, and that the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources and/or associated traditional knowledge are shared in an equitable manner. In practice, however, there is a lack of evidence to suggest whether the provisions of the CBD and Nagoya Protocol are being adequately implemented and achieved. This research focuses on the commercialisation of the resurrection bush (Myrothamnus flabellifolius) in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa and critically evaluates how the requirements of the CBD and Nagoya Protocol are applied. The resurrection bush spans a number of countries and has been used traditionally by a variety of ethnic communities residing in Africa. Traditional medicinal uses for the resurrection bush include using the plant to treat colds and flu, scurvy, coughs, abdominal pain, epilepsy, and asthma. This study aims to uncover and understand the way in which benefit sharing and environmental sustainability are interpreted and implemented in various resurrection bush commercialisation approaches. Six objectives are articulated to achieve this aim: (1) to review the historical use and traditional knowledge associated with the resurrection bush; (2) to describe the different ways the resurrection bush is commercialised and the different processes each commercialisation strategy follows; (3) to describe the actors involved in the different resurrection bush commercialisation strategies and their roles in the commercialisation process; (4) to explore, within each commercialisation strategy, how commercial actors gain access to resources; (5) to describe and analyse the range of benefits derived from each commercialisation approach; and (6) to assess the policy implications and practical applications of current resurrection bush commercialisation approaches. This research adopted a qualitative case study methodological approach, in which 26 key informant interviews and 137 semi-structured harvester interviews were conducted in Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. The key informants consisted of private companies, NGOs, and government officials across all three countries. Interviews with these informants were carried out to determine the diversity of commercialisation approaches associated with the resurrection bush, the actors involved, the ways in which commercial entities gain access to resources, how benefits are shared, and what measures are put in place for environmental sustainability. Further interviews were conducted with resurrection bush collectors in Namibia and Zimbabwe to review the historical and traditional uses associated with the resurrection bush. Understanding these uses provides insight into the types of agreements developed for its commercialisation and associated environmental, social and economic benefits. It was found that there are three commercialisation approaches associated with the resurrection bush across Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. They are: (1) Informal trade, where harvesters sell raw material directly to consumers based on informal, verbal agreements; (2) Biotrade, where the value chain is longer and consists of more formal agreements; and (3) Bioprospecting, where research and development of the resurrection bush is a strong component, involving negotiations with harvesters and formal written agreements. Several key findings emerged to inform current and future commercialisation approaches. The inadequate implementation of regulatory frameworks within each commercialisation approach has negatively impacted harvesters and overall economic growth. Harvesters are not receiving maximum benefits from commercialisation due to elite capture of benefits from resurrection bush cultivation sites and significant profit margins on end products. Traditional knowledge holders are not adequately compensated and acknowledged for their innovations and practices due to the absence of sufficient historical records of traditional knowledge, and cooperation between countries and communities who share resources which are commonly used. Long-term conservation efforts associated with the resurrection bush are lacking in all commercialisation approaches due the belief that because there is an abundance of the resource in the wild, additional conservation measures are not needed.