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Resting energy expenditure (REE) is determined mainly by fat-free mass (FFM). FFM depends also on daily physical activity. REE normally decreases with increased age due to decreases in FFM and physical activity. Measuring REE is essential for estimating total energy expenditure. As such, there are a number of different equations in use to predict REE. In recent years, an increasing number of older adults continue to participate in competitive sports creating the surge of master athletes. It is currently unclear if these equations developed primarily for the general population are also valid for highly active, older master athletes. Therefore, we tested the validity of six commonly-used equations for predicting REE in master athletes. In conjunction with the World Masters Athletic Championship in Malaga, Spain, we measured REE in 113 master athletes by indirect calorimetry. The most commonly used equations to predict REE [Harris & Benedict (H&B), World Health Organization (WHO), Müller (MÜL), Müller-FFM (MÜL-FFM), Cunningham (CUN), and De Lorenzo (LOR)] were tested for their accuracies. The influences of age, sex, height, body weight, FFM, training hours per week, phase angle, ambient temperature, and athletic specialization on REE were determined. All estimated REEs for the general population differed significantly from the measured ones (H&B, WHO, MÜL, MÜL-FFM, CUN, all p < 0.005). The equation put forward by De Lorenzo provided the most accurate prediction of REE for master athletes, closely followed by FFM-based Cunningham’s equation. The accuracy of the remaining commonly-used prediction equations to estimate REE in master athletes are less accurate. Body weight (p < 0.001), FFM (p < 0.001), FM (p = 0.007), sex (p = 0.045) and interestingly temperature (p = 0.004) are the significant predictors of REE. We conclude that REE in master athletes is primarily determined by body composition and ambient temperature. Our study provides a first estimate of energy requirements for master athletes in order to cover adequately athletes’ energy and nutrient requirements to maintain their health status and physical performance.

Background: Cardiac function and morphology are known to differ between men and women. Sex differences seen with echocardiography have not been studied systematically in masters athletes. Purpose: To evaluate sex differences in cardiac structure, function and left ventricular (LV) systolic global longitudinal strain among masters athletes. Methods: This cross-sectional study comprises of 163 masters athletes (M = 109, 60 ± 12 years; F = 55, 57 ± 12 years, range 36–91 years) who participated at the 23rd World Masters Athletics Championship held in Málaga, Spain. All athletes underwent state-of-the-art echocardiography including cardiac function, morphology, strain and hemodynamic assessment. Results: Left ventricular mass was higher in male than in female athletes (174 ± 44 vs. 141 ± 36 g, p < 0.01) due to greater end-diastolic intraventricular septal, LV posterior wall and LV basal diameter. However, LV mass index did not differ between the groups. End-diastolic LV volume and right ventricular area, both indexed to bodysurface-area, were greater in men than in women (52.8 ± 11.0 vs. 46.1 ± 8.5 ml/m2, p < 0.01, 9.5 ± 2.4 vs. 8.1 ± 1.7 cm2/m2, p < 0.01). In contrast, women had higher LV systolic global longitudinal strain (-20.2 ± 2.6 vs. -18.8 ± 2.6%, p < 0.01) and LV outflow tract flow velocity (75.1 ± 11.1 vs. 71.2 ± 11.1 cm/s, p = 0.04). Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, LV ejection fraction, and stroke volume index were not different between sexes. Conclusion: Cardiac sex differences are present even among masters athletes. Lifelong exercise training does not appear to exasperate morphological difference to a point of cardiac risk or dysfunction in both male and female athletes.

Recent studies are elucidating the interrelation between sleep, cranial perfusion, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulation. Head down tilt (HDT) as a simulation of microgravity reduces cranial perfusion. Therefore, our aim was to assess whether HDT is affecting sleep (clinicaltrials.gov; identifier NCT 02976168). 11 male subjects were recruited for a cross-over designed study. Each subject participated in two campaigns each comprising 3 days and 2 nights. Intervention started on the second campaign day and consisted of maintenance of horizontal position or −12° HDT for 21 h. Ultrasound measurements were performed before, at the beginning and the end of intervention. Polysomnographic measurements were assessed in the second night which was either spent in horizontal posture or at −12° HDT. Endpoints were sleep efficiency, sleep onset latency, number of sleep state changes and arousals, percentages of N3, REM, light sleep stages and subjective sleep parameters. N3 and REM sleep reduced by 25.6 and 19.1 min, respectively (P = 0.002, g = -0.898; P = 0.035, g = -0.634) during −12° HDT. Light sleep (N1/2) increased by 33.0 min at −12° HDT (P = 0.002, g = 1.078). On a scale from 1 to 9 subjective sleep quality deteriorated by 1.3 points during −12° HDT (P = 0.047, g = -0.968). Ultrasonic measurement of the venous system showed a significant increase of the minimum (P = 0.009, P < 0.001) and maximum (P = 0.004, P = 0.002) cross-sectional area of the internal jugular vein at −12° HDT. The minimum cross-sectional area of the external jugular vein differed significantly between conditions over time (P = 0.001) whereas frontal skin tissue thickness was not significantly different between conditions (P = 0.077, P = 0.811). Data suggests venous congestion at −12° HDT. Since subjects felt comfortable with lying in −12° HDT under our experimental conditions, this posture only moderately deteriorates sleep. Obviously, the human body can almost compensate the several fold effects of gravity in HDT posture like an affected CSF circulation, airway obstruction, unusual patterns of propioception and effects on the cardiovascular system.