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EU Member States should ensure that they implement adequate health surveillance schemes in all aquaculture farming areas, as appropriate for the type of production. This study presents the results of applying the FAO's Surveillance Evaluation Tool (SET) to assess the Spanish disease surveillance system for farmed fish species, which although applied previously in livestock production, is applied here to aquaculture for the first time. Overall, there were important score differences between trout and marine fish (seabass and seabream) surveillance, which were higher for trout in the following areas: Institutional (70.8% versus 50.0%), Laboratory (91.7% versus 47.2%), and Surveillance activities (75.3% versus 61.3%). For other categories, the values were lower and no significant differences were found. However, most surveillance efforts focused only on trout, for which there are EU and WOAH listed (notifiable) diseases. In contrast, for seabream and seabass, for which there are no listed diseases, it was considered that surveillance efforts should, nevertheless, be in place and should focus on the identification of abnormal mortalities and emerging diseases, for which there are as yet no standardized harmonised methodologies., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Muniesa, Ruiz-Zarzuela, Lamielle, Von Dobschuetz, Furones, Rodgers and Basurco.)

Background: Livestock farmers' attitudes, practices, and behaviors are major factors in infection prevention and control of animal diseases. Kenya has the fourth largest global camel population, and the industry has grown over the last two decades, transforming beyond the traditional camel-keeping areas to include peri-urban camel trade and value chain growth. The dromedary camel is resilient, and it is a preferred species in the arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) of Kenya. However, it still faces many health and production challenges; to identify infection drivers and risky behaviors for camel respiratory illnesses and conditions in Kenya, we conducted a knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) survey., Method: Using a set of tools (questionnaires, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions), we interviewed camel owners, herders, agro-veterinary outlets, and other relevant value chain stakeholders in Garissa and Isiolo counties ( n = 85). Data were analyzed using descriptive and analytic statistics., Results: Most camel owners/herders are male and most are relatively uneducated (85.5%). The camels were used primarily for milk and meat production, income generation, and transport. Larger herd sizes (>30 camels) and owner/herder's lack of formal education are risk factors for owner-reported respiratory illnesses in camels. Major clinical signs of respiratory conditions were coughing (85.7%), nasal discharge (59.7%), and fever (23.4%). Diseases, lack of feeds, theft, and marketing challenges are the major constraints to camel production in Kenya. Owners-herders use drugs indiscriminately and this may contribute to antimicrobial resistance challenges., Conclusion: Practitioners in the camel value chain want more commitment from the government and animal health officials on support services and access to veterinary services. Watering points, grazing areas, and marketing points are the primary areas for congregating camels and have a significant potential for disease spread. Kenya camels have a massive capacity for rural and ASALs' livelihoods transformation but the identified health challenges, and other issues must be addressed. Further studies on the Kenyan camels' respiratory microbial ecology are important to understand microbial risks and reduce the burden of zoonotic infections. Intensification of risk communication and community engagement, and messaging targeted at behavior change interventions should be directed at camel value chain actors., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The funder and FAO did not influence the outcome of the research or its publication, and cannot be held liable for the outcomes., (Copyright © 2022 Othieno, Njagi, Masika, Apamaku, Tenge, Mwasa, Kimondo, Gardner, Von Dobschuetz, Muriira, Adul, Mwongela, Hambe, Nyariki and Fasina.)

Over the years, the emergence of novel H5 and H7 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAI) has been taking place through two main mechanisms: first, the conversion of a low pathogenic into a highly pathogenic virus, and second, the reassortment between different genetic segments of low and highly pathogenic viruses already in circulation. We investigated and summarized the literature on emerging HPAI H5 and H7 viruses with the aim of building a spatio-temporal database of all these recorded conversions and reassortments events. We subsequently mapped the spatio-temporal distribution of known emergence events, as well as the species and production systems that they were associated with, the aim being to establish their main characteristics. From 1959 onwards, we identified a total of 39 independent H7 and H5 LPAI to HPAI conversion events. All but two of these events were reported in commercial poultry production systems, and a majority of these events took place in high-income countries. In contrast, a total of 127 reassortments have been reported from 1983 to 2015, which predominantly took place in countries with poultry production systems transitioning from backyard to intensive production systems. Those systems are characterized by several co-circulating viruses, multiple host species, regular contact points in live bird markets, limited biosecurity within value chains, and frequent vaccination campaigns that impose selection pressures for emergence of novel reassortants. We conclude that novel HPAI emergences by these two mechanisms occur in different ecological niches, with different viral, environmental and host associated factors, which has implications in early detection and management and mitigation of the risk of emergence of novel HPAI viruses.