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Haemonchus contortus is one of the most common and fatal pathogenic gastrointestinal nematodes of small ruminants causing significant economic losses, particularly in low‐income countries. A cross‐sectional study was carried out in randomly selected small ruminants kept under traditional husbandry systems in the Apac district (now split into Apac and Kwania districts) in northern Uganda to assess the prevalence, intensity, and associated risk factors of H. contortus infection from May 2018 to January 2019. Faecal samples were collected from a total of 768 randomly selected small ruminants (384 sheep and 384 goats) and examined for parasites using the floatation method and coproculture. The overall prevalence of H. contortus in small ruminants was 73.3% (563/768) by faecal egg count and 70.6% (542/768) by coproculture. The mean number of eggs per gram of faeces in small ruminants was 2046 ± 107 and differed significantly across the host animals ranging from 1729 ± 120 (mean ± SE) in goats to 2364 ± 176 in sheep. Significant predictors of infection were the origin of study animals, animal species, breed of animal, age of study animal, faecal consistency, lactation, multispecies grazing, grazing method, and anthelmintic use. The findings of our study provide information on the current status of H. contortus infections in goats and sheep under traditional husbandry systems in Uganda which are critical in designing effective control strategies for the disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), a contagious virus that infects sheep and goats, damages livestock globally. This study examined the clinical features and phylogenetic analysis of the PPR virus in Iraqi breed sheep from Al‐Diwaniyah province. A clinical trial of 610 sheep from different flocks found 150 oral lesions. Special primers for RT‐PCR and Mega11 for phylogenetic analysis were used to study the PPR virus nucleoprotein (N) gene. The PPR infection rate was 44.6% in 4–12 month olds (n = 33/131) and 4.8% in 36–48 month olds (n = 3/75). A 608‐bp PPR virus partial N gene sequence was found in 49.3% of samples by RT‐PCR. In leucine, isoleucine, proline, glycine, alanine, glutamine, asparagine, threonine, serine, arginine, and lysine codons, 25 amino acid alterations were found. The protein codon 56 alanine‐valine alteration was most significant. Moving from a smaller hydrophobic amino acid to one with a bigger side chain may reduce protein stability. Steric hindrance or protein shape change from Valine's extended side chain may impact folding, stability, functionality, and interactions with other molecules. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis showed that the Nigerian strain (MN271586) was most similar to our Iraqi strain, with 100% identity and coverage. This study found the Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) virus in sheep flocks in Al‐Diwaniyah Governorate, Iraq, which is genetically similar to neighboring countries. PPR virus strains must be monitored and genetically characterized since N gene alterations can affect infection and propagation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste-des-Petits Ruminants Virus (PPRV) causes a highly contagious and severe infectious disease known as Peste-des-Petits Ruminants (PPR), resulting in significant mortality in both domestic and wild ruminants. An in-depth understanding of the molecular relationship between PPRV and susceptible hosts is essential for the prevention of PPR. The signaling lymphocytic-activation molecule (SLAM) acts as a key receptor in susceptible host species, mediating interactions with PPRV and triggering PPR in ruminants. This study offers an in-depth analysis of PPRV-susceptible host species as well as the identified SLAM amino acid sequences to date. Investigation reveals that nine families—Bovidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Elephantidae, Suidae, Felidae, Canidae, Muridae, and Ceratopogonidae—have been affected by PPRV infection. Furthermore, a bioinformatics-based approach was proposed to screen the least common amino acid patterns (LCAP) in important SLAM receptor regions of known PPRV-susceptible species. Research findings reveal that 14 least common amino acid sites (LCAS) in SLAM amino acid sequences (I61, I63, S60, S70, K76, K78, I79, S81, L82, E123, N125, S127, V128, and F131) exhibit a prevalent similarity to LCAP across all known susceptible species. Comparative analysis of these 14 LCAP with SLAM nucleotide sequences from unknown susceptible ruminants to identify species at heightened risk of PPRV. In the result, 48 species from 20 different families across six orders were at potential risk of being infected with PPRV. This exploration suggests the feasibility of assessing potential hosts at high risk of PPRV infection through the LCAS screening technique. Moreover, it offers a means to anticipate and issue warnings regarding the likelihood of interspecies transmission. In conclusion, this study integrates molecular biology and bioinformatics, shedding light on PPRV infection dynamics and paving the way for predictive strategies to prevent the spread of this devastating disease among ruminant populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tick-borne pathogens are responsible for many vector-borne diseases in Europe, causing important problems for human and animal health. The composition of viral communities in ticks and their interactions with pathogens is little understood, especially in Eastern Europe, an area that represents a major hub for animal-arthropod vectors exchanges. In this study, we used metatranscriptomics to characterize the virome of 2,753 Ixodes ricinus ticks collected from France and Romania, focusing on viruses that could potentially have implications for human or animal health. Among the great viral diversity of viruses identified, we reported a novel strain of Tribec virus, an important human pathogen that was found in Romanian ticks. We detected viruses belonging to the Phenuiviridae and Nairoviridae families close to human and animal pathogens, suggesting that these viruses could constitute novel arboviruses. We used luciferase immunoprecipitation system targeting external viral proteins of viruses identified among the Sedoreoviridae, Phenuiviridae, and Nairoviridae families to screen serum samples from small ruminants' exposed to tick bites. The results suggest that part (approximately 12%, 95% CI 9.1–16.2) of the small ruminant population from Danube Delta, was exposed to viruses related to bi- or tri-segmented nairoviruses, but cross-reactive viruses could not be confirmed with certainly. The strategy developed in this study serves as a key step in predicting potential new disease outbreaks and can be readily adapted to study other reservoirs, vectors, and interfaces involving susceptible hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goats are among the most important small ruminants affected by Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) and contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) diseases, two of the most significant constraints worldwide to the production of small ruminant species. Herein, the competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) and the latex agglutination test (LAT) were used to determine the coinfections of PPR and CCPP in goats in Kwale County on Kenya's South Coast. A total of 368 serum samples were collected from goats of various ages and sexes exhibiting respiratory distress in the four subcounties of Kwale County (Kinango, Lunga Lunga, Matuga, and Msambweni) and screened for PPR and CCPP antibodies. Of the 368 goats sampled, 259 (70.4%) were females and 109 (29.6%) were males, and 126 (34.2%), 71 (19.3%), 108 (29.3%), and 63 (17.1%) samples were collected from Kinango, Matuga, Lunga Lunga, and Msambweni, respectively. The overall PPR seropositivity rate was 48.6% (179/368); rates in Kinango, Lunga Lunga, Matuga, and Msambweni were 70.6%, 29.6%, 49.3%, and 36.5%, respectively. The overall CCPP seropositivity rate was 45.4% (167/368), while rates in Kinango, Lunga Lunga, Matuga, and Msambweni were 51.6%, 49.1%, 36.6%, and 36.5%, respectively. Notably, the seropositivity of PPR was higher in male (53.3%) than in female (46.72%) goats, though not statistically significant. In addition, the CCPP seropositivity rates were not significantly different between male (44.0%) and female (45.9%) goats. Regarding age, the PPR seropositivity rates were 45.9%, 55.8%, and 52.3% in adults, kids, and weaners, respectively. For CCPP, the seropositivity rates were 48.3%, 40.4%, and 42.3% in adults, kids, and weaners, respectively. The coinfection rate of PPR and CCPP was 22.3% (82/368). Despite the high coinfection, univariate analysis revealed no relationship between PPR and CCPP infections. However, given the high PPR and CCPP infection rates, as a result of separate or coinfection, there is a need to upscale or intensify vaccination in the county. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pathogen transfers between wild and domestic animals and between animals and humans are increasing. Their dramatic consequences for public and veterinary health as well as for conservation call for innovative and user-friendly methods for pathogen surveillance in wildlife. Xenosurveillance, a method based on the use of invertebrates (e.g., mosquitoes, hematophagous flies, leeches, cadaveric arthropods) to sample animal tissues (e.g., blood) and the associated pathogens, is one of these tools. Previously, we demonstrated that hematophagous flies, such as tsetse flies, could be useful to detect and identify the etiological agents of malaria in a diverse range of mammals in Gabon. However, we did not assess whether this method can be also used to detect viruses. In the present study, we experimentally fed tsetse flies (Glossina fuscipes fuscipes) rabbit blood containing different viruses of medical or veterinary importance (Zika, Dengue, Chikungunya, African swine fever, Bluetongue, and peste des petits ruminants viruses). Then, we used quantitative PCR (i) to determine for how long viral nucleic acid fragments remained detectable in the tsetse midgut during blood digestion and (ii) to compare two blood meal preservation methods (i.e., FTA cards and RNAlater solution) tested using tsetse flies engorged with blood and dengue-2 virus. All viruses remained detectable for 6 days after feeding, although the detection probability significantly decreased over time. FTA cards and RNAlater solution gave similar results in terms of virus detection. Our results demonstrate that xenosurveillance using blood-engorged tsetse flies is a valuable tool to track and survey viruses in wildlife in Sub-Saharan Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus causes a major disease in domestic and wild small ruminants. Understanding the role of wildlife in PPR virus ecology is important for PPR control and its eradication targeted worldwide in 2030. Developing diagnostic tools that provide reliable data for PPR detection in wildlife will help monitor wild populations for PPR and support the eradication program. We analyze a continental-scale dataset from African free-ranging wild ungulates (n = 2570) collected between 1994 and 2007. A Bayesian model estimated the performance of ELISA tests against PPR and rinderpest and their prevalence in African buffalo. The H- and N-ELISA tests used, not initially developed for wildlife, showed poor sensitivities for the detection of PPR antibodies in African buffalo. The estimations of PPR antibody prevalence derived from the results of these tests for animals presumably not exposed or potentially exposed to PPR were uncertain. Thus, poor performances of these PPR serological tests in wildlife would not allow robust estimations of PPR antibody prevalence in African buffalo and would be extremely speculative in non-buffalo wild ungulate species. We recommend that current and new tests be validated for wildlife hosts to provide sufficient sensitivity and specificity of detection and a diagnostic protocol be developed for PPR wildlife research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we simulated the potential spread of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) between small ruminant (SR) farms in the Republic of Kazakhstan (RK) in case of the disease's introduction into the country. The simulation was based on actual data on the location and population of SR farms in the RK using the North American Animal Disease Spread Model (NAADSM). The NAADSM employs the stochastic simulations of the between-farm disease spread predicated on the SIR compartmental epidemic model. The most important epidemiological indicators of PPR, demography of SR farms, and livestock management characteristics in the RK were used for model parameterization. This article considers several scenarios for the initial introduction of PPR into the territory of Kazakhstan, based on previously identified high-risk regions and varying sizes of initially infected farms. It is demonstrated that the duration and size of the outbreak do not depend on the size of initially infected farms but rather depend on the livestock concentration and number of farms in the affected area. This implies that the outbreak may affect the largest number of farms in the case of introduction of the disease into farms in southern Kazakhstan. However, even in the most unfavorable scenario, the total number of affected farms does not exceed 2.4% of all SR farms in the RK. The size of the affected area is, in most cases, no larger than an averaged 2-level administrative division's size, which suggests the scale of a local epidemic. The chosen model provides ample opportunity to study the impact of different control and prevention measures on the spread of PPR as well as to assess the potential economic damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a viral disease of small ruminants that is highly contagious, severe, reportable, and economically important. The present study was conducted to detect the PPR virus (PPRV) circulating in sheep in Bangladesh to determine its association with epidemiological risk factors and the degree of relationship between the F and H genes of the PPRV of sheep with those of other sheep and goat isolates. A cross-sectional study was conducted in five selected districts of Bangladesh to collect data on locations, ecological zones, breeds, age, sex, sources, time period, and farming systems using a structured questionnaire accompanied by face-to-face interviews. During sampling, 250 nasal swab samples were collected from live sheep with the typical clinical signs of PPR. Thereafter, a reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay was employed to detect PPRV using the F and H genes. Risk factors were determined using bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses. Phylogenetic analysis of the detected PPRV was performed using MEGA software after sequencing both F and H genes. Using RT-PCR, 35.6% (89/250, 95% CI: 29.6%–41.6%) of the samples were found to be positive for PPRV. Locations, breeds, sources, and feeding systems were identified as potential molecular epidemiological risk factors for PPRV infection in a multivariate logistic regression model. Nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis showed that the PPRV strain was genetically related to the lineage IV virus isolates. For the F gene, the sequence divergence of our gene and other selected genes ranged from 0.01% to 0.018% within lineage IV, and the similarity ranged from 98.2% to 99.0%. In the case of the H gene, similar results were also observed in divergence, ranging from 0.017% to 0.083% among lineage IV and others, and similarity varied from 91.7% to 98.3%. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in Bangladesh conducted to determine the RT-PCR-based molecular epidemiology of PPRV in sheep. This study highlights the importance of establishing successful interventions for managing PPRV infections in small ruminants in Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The genus Haemonchus is the major abomasal parasite of ruminants responsible for substantial economic losses in tropical and temperate regions. This study was conducted to clarify the morphometry and molecular characterisation of Haemonchus species isolated from sheep in Babati district, Tanzania. A total of 486 trichostrongylid nematodes were recovered from five sheep. Of the total worms, 106 nematodes were distinguished by 37 males and 69 females. The asymmetrical length of dorsal ray and the distance of bulb at the apex of spicules were used for identification of males. In females, the linguiform vulvar flap was the most predominant with 33 out of 69 (48%) compared with knobbed morph type which was 25/69 (36%) and smooth morph type with 11/69 (16%). Partial cox1 sequence fragments of Haemonchus contortus isolates showed 98.8%, 99.3%, 99.7%, 99.5%, 99.3%, and 98.4% in male, smooth, knobbed, linguiform A, linguiform B, and linguiform C, respectively; with the average nucleotide divergence ranged from 1.03 to 2.35%. The amplified fragments of ITS-2 genes in knobbed, linguiform A, and smooth morphotypes revealed 99.4%, 98.5%, and 98.3%, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis was evaluated by employing Bayesian inference and maximum-likelihood, and the tree was distinctly separated into three clusters focusing on H. contortus in cluster I within the family Haemonchidae. Genetic drifting, mutation, and modification of the morphological features of the Haemonchus species described to have an impact on the development of drug resistance. Species identification is necessary to understand which species infect animal host. We recommend more studies on the parasites intensity and the strategies for controlling Haemonchus species in Tanzania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an important endemic disease of small ruminants in Ethiopia. While vaccination is widely used in the country to control the disease, quantitative estimates of the actual economic losses due to outbreaks and costs of vaccination are scarce. This study assessed the economic impact and costs of PPR vaccination in Metema district, northwest Ethiopia. The economic impact of the disease was estimated from an outbreak investigation including interviews with 233 smallholder farmers in PPR‐affected kebeles (subdistricts). The cost of PPR vaccination was obtained from vaccination programs in six kebeles of the district and from secondary data in the district veterinary office. In the investigated PPR outbreak, animal‐level PPR morbidity and mortality rates were 51% and 22%, respectively, in sheep and 51% and 25%, respectively, in goats. The flock level morbidity rate was 83% for sheep flocks and 87% for goat flocks. The mean flock level loss was Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 7835 (USD 329 in 2018 average exchange rate) (95% CI: 5954‐9718) for affected sheep flocks and ETB 7136 (USD 300) (95% CI: 5869–8404) for affected goat flocks. The losses in all study flocks during the outbreak were ETB 319 (USD 13.4) per sheep and ETB 306 (USD 12.9) per goat. Mortality accounted for more than 70% of the total losses in both sheep and goat flocks. Vaccination costs for PPR were estimated at ETB 3 per correctly vaccinated animal. Based on the estimated animal‐level direct economic losses and vaccination cost, it can be conjectured that vaccination will pay if a district PPR outbreak occurs more than once every 13 years. This does not account for additional benefits from vaccine‐derived herd immunity reducing disease burden in the wider population. In conclusion, PPR caused high morbidity and mortality in the affected flocks and resulted in high economic losses, equivalent to 14% of annual household income, dramatically affecting the livelihoods of affected flock owners. The vaccination practised in the district is likely to have a positive economic return, with strengthened vaccination programmes bringing reduced economic impact and improved livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a transboundary, highly contagious, and fatal disease of small ruminants. PPR causes global annual economic losses of between USD 1.5 and 2.0 billion across more than 70 affected countries. Despite the commercial availability of effective PPR vaccines, lack of financial and technical commitment to PPR control coupled with a dearth of refined PPR risk profiling data in different endemic countries has perpetuated PPR virus transmission. In Uganda, over the past 5 years, PPR has extended from northeastern Uganda (Karamoja) with sporadic incursions in other districts /regions. To identify disease cluster hotspot trends that would facilitate the design and implementation of PPR risk‐based control methods (including vaccination), we employed the space–time cube approach to identify trends in the clustering of outbreaks in neighbouring space–time cells using confirmed PPR outbreak report data (2007–2020). We also used negative binomial and logistic regression models and identified high small ruminant density, extended road length, low annual precipitation and high soil water index as the most important drivers of PPR in Uganda. The study identified (with 90–99% confidence) five PPR disease hotspot trend categories across subregions of Uganda. Diminishing hotspots were identified in the Karamoja region whereas consecutive, sporadic, new and emerging hotspots were identified in central and southwestern districts of Uganda. Inter‐district and cross‐border small ruminant movement facilitated by longer road stretches and animal comingling precipitate PPR outbreaks as well as PPR virus spread from its initial Karamoja focus to the central and southwestern Uganda. There is therefore urgent need to prioritize considerable vaccination coverage to obtain the required herd immunity among small ruminants in the new hotspot areas to block transmission to further emerging hotspots. Findings of this study provide a basis for more robust timing and prioritization of control measures including vaccination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly infectious disease that mainly infects small ruminants. To date, PPR has been confirmed in more than 70 countries. In China, PPR has occurred in more than 20 provinces and cities. In this study, based on geographic information system (GIS), spatial analysis was used to examine the occurrence of PPR in China from 2007 to 2018. The results showed that PPR first occurred in Tibet and gradually spread to other provinces. The outbreaks of PPR were concentrated in 2014, 2015 and 2018. Combining climate factors with the maximum entropy (MaxEnt), the results also suggested that the potential risk areas of PPR outbreaks in China were mainly Jiangsu, Yunnan and Anhui in Southeast China. Finally, a phylogenetic tree was used to analyse the evolutionary relationship between the peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) in China and the global ones, and it was found that the one in China had a close genetic relationship with the one in Mongolia, India and Bangladesh. Understanding and forecasting the distribution of PPR in China will help policymakers develop targeted monitoring plans. Likewise, analysing the global PPRV epidemic trends will play an important role in the elimination and prevention of PPR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livestock markets are considered vital parts of the agricultural economy, particularly in developing countries where livestock keeping contributes to both food security and economic stability. Animals from diverse sources are moved to markets, they mix while they are there and are subsequently redistributed over wide geographic areas. Consequently, markets provide an opportunity for targeted surveillance for circulating pathogens. This study investigated the use of environmental sampling at a live goat market in Nepal for the detection of foot‐and‐mouth disease virus (FMDV) and peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), both of which are endemic. Five visits to the market were carried out between November 2016 and April 2018, with FMDV RNA detected on four visits and PPRV RNA detected on all five visits. Overall, 4.1% of samples (nine out of 217) were positive for FMDV RNA and 60.8% (132 out of 217) were positive for PPRV RNA, though the proportion of positive samples varied amongst visits. These results demonstrate that non‐invasive, environmental sampling methods have the potential to be used to detect circulation of high priority livestock diseases at a live animal market and, hence, to contribute to their surveillance and control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transboundary Animal Diseases (TADs) are notifiable diseases which are highly transmissible and have the potential for rapid spread regardless of national borders. Many TADs are shared between domestic animals and wildlife, with the potential to affect both livestock sector and wildlife conservation and eventually, public health in the case of zoonosis. The European Commission for the Control of Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease (EuFMD), a commission of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), has grouped six TADs as 'Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) And Similar Transboundary animal diseases' (FAST diseases). FAST diseases are ruminant infections caused by viruses, for which vaccination is a control option. The EuFMD hold‐FAST strategy aims primarily at addressing the threat represented by FAST diseases for Europe. Prevention and control of FAST diseases might benefit from assessing the role of wildlife. We reviewed the role of wildlife as indicators, victims, bridge hosts or maintenance hosts for the six TADs included in the EuFMD hold‐FAST strategy: FMD, peste des petits ruminants, lumpy skin disease, sheep and goatpox, Rift Valley fever and bovine ephemeral fever. We observed that wildlife can act as indicator species. In addition, they are occasionally victims of disease outbreaks, and they are often relevant for disease management as either bridge or maintenance hosts. Wildlife deserves to become a key component of future integrated surveillance and disease control strategies in an ever‐changing world. It is advisable to increase our knowledge on wildlife roles in relevant TADs to improve our preparedness in case of an outbreak in previously disease‐free regions, where wildlife may be significant for disease surveillance and control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR), a contagious viral disease affecting small ruminants, has been targeted by the global community for eradication within the next 10 years. However, eradication will require substantial money, human resources, coordination among actors, and individual commitments. The objective was to estimate the cost of PPR at a household level, thereby providing information on the potential economic benefits of PPR eradication and the incentives for small ruminant keepers to actively participate in the PPR Global Eradication Programme. This study focused on four sub‐Saharan countries: Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali and Rwanda. Publicly available household level data assembled by FAO were used. A bioeconomic model was built to estimate impacts of PPR for a standardized theoretical area, where each household raised an average small ruminant herd or flock. Model outputs were used to estimate, at a household level, income loss due to a PPR outbreak. We constructed various income scenarios to account for the variability of small ruminant income as a proportion of total household annual income. Household income losses ranged from 2% to 40% of total annual income; percentages varied depending on the income scenario and on the gross annual economic impact of PPR on small ruminant production, which ranged from 20% to 80%, based on results of the bioeconomic model. As expected, the more small ruminant production contributed to household income the greater the impact. Estimates provided herein warn decision makers that, given the heterogeneous impact of PPR on household income, the willingness of small ruminant decision makers to participate in the PPR Global Eradication Programme may vary widely and tailored approaches should be devised and implemented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a viral transboundary disease seen in small ruminants, that causes significant damage to agriculture. This disease has not been previously registered in the Republic of Kazakhstan (RK). This paper presents an assessment of the susceptibility of the RK's territory to the spread of the disease in the event of its importation from infected countries. The negative binomial regression model that was trained on the PPR outbreaks in China, was used to rank municipal districts in the RK in terms of PPR spread risk. The outbreak count per administrative district was used as a risk indicator, while a number of socio‐economic, landscape, and climatic factors were considered as explanatory variables. Summary road length, altitude, the density of small ruminants, the maximum green vegetation fraction, cattle density, and the Engel coefficient were the most significant factors. The model demonstrated a good performance in training data (R2 = 0.69), and was transferred to the RK, suggesting a significantly lower susceptibility of this country to the spread of PPR. Hot spot analysis identified three clusters of districts at the highest risk, located in the western, eastern, and southern parts of Kazakhstan. As part of the study, a countrywide survey was conducted to collect data on the distribution of livestock populations, which resulted in the compilation of a complete geo‐database of small ruminant holdings in the RK. The research results may be used to formulate a national strategy for preventing the importation and spread of PPR in Kazakhstan through targeted monitoring in high‐risk areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) due to Leishmania tropica is spreading to new areas in Morocco. Exposure to the vector, Phlebotomus sergenti, is the only proven risk factor. Our objective was to compare the densities and genetic characteristics of P. sergenti populations in two nearby localities in Morocco, one in an ACL endemic area (El Borouj) and another in a nonendemic area (Sidi Hajjaj). P. sergenti density was significantly higher in the endemic area than in the nonendemic town (p = 0.032). A different predominant P. sergenti mitochondrial lineage was evidenced in each one of the two localities, and for the first time, the P. sergenti lineage acting as a vector of L. tropica has been identified. Bioclimatic differences were detected between both localities. In conclusion we found differences in both the density and the mitochondrial lineage of P. sergenti populations that may explain the different epidemiological situation. Given that the density of P. sergenti in the locality without ACL cases seems sufficient to allow transmission, the main factor that would justify its nonendemic character could be the absence of P. sergenti Lineage IV, which seems to prefer warmer and drier climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is one of the most important transboundary diseases of small ruminants. In this study, nasal and oral swabs (n = 24) were collected from sheep (n = 7) and goats (n = 17) with clinical signs in southern Ethiopia in March 2020. PPR virus was isolated on Vero dog cells expressing the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (VDS) and screened using RT-qPCR. Positive samples were confirmed by conventional RT-PCR followed by sequencing of a partial nucleoprotein (N) gene segment. Results revealed that 54% (n = 13/24) of the tested samples were PPRV-positive Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the viruses belonged to lineage IV and lineage II. The lineage IV viruses were similar, although not identical, to other lineage IV viruses previously reported in Ethiopia and other East African countries while the lineage II viruses have been reported for the first time in Ethiopia showed a high nucleotide identity (99.06%) with the vaccine (Nigeria 75/1) that is currently used in Ethiopia for the prevention of PPR. Further investigations are therefore recommended in order to fully understand the true nature of the lineage II PPRVs in Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious viral disease that mainly affects goats and sheep in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. The PPR virus (PPRV) can be classified into four genetically distinct lineages (I, II, III and IV). All have been historically present in Africa, except the Asian lineage IV that has been spreading across the globe and across Africa in recent decades. Previous studies have identified the presence of lineage IV in Nigeria since 2010. In the present study, samples were taken from 429 small ruminants with PPR symptoms across Nigeria in 2017-2020 to provide an update on the distribution and genetic diversity of PPRV in the country. Sequences from a portion of the PPRV nucleoprotein (N) gene were obtained from 91 samples, 90 belonging to lineage IV and one to lineage II. Phylogenetic analysis identified at least four lineage IV sub-clusters in Nigeria, grouping samples across multiple regions. Our results suggest extensive endemic circulation of a wide range of PPRV strains across Nigeria and across borders with neighbouring countries, underlining the difficulty involved in controlling the disease in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Epizootic haemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) is a member of the Orbivirus genus in the Reoviridae family, and it is the etiological agent of an arthropod-transmitted disease that affects domestic and wild ruminants. Due to its significant economic impact, many attempts have been done in order to develop diagnostic immunoassays mainly based on the use of the viral protein 7 (VP7), that is, the immunodominant serogroup-specific antigen. In this work, a recombinant VP7 (recVP7) of EHDV serotype 2 was produced in a baculovirus system, and after purification using ion metal affinity chromatography, we obtained a high yield of recombinant protein characterized by a high degree of purity. We used the purified recVP7 as reagent to develop a competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay (c-ELISA), and we tested the presence of EHDV antibodies in 185 dromedary camel serum samples. The c-ELISA showed good performance parameters in recognising positive sera of naturally EHDV-infected dromedary camels; in particular, our developed test reached 85.7% of sensitivity, 98.1% of specificity, 93% of accuracy, and a high agreement value with results obtained by the commercial ELISA kit (Cohen's kappa value of 0.85) that we adopted as the reference method. This c-ELISA could be a useful screening test to monitor the virus spread in camels that are sentinel animals for endemic areas of disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious disease of small ruminants. The causal agent, PPR virus (PPRV), is classified into four genetically distinct lineages. Lineage IV, originally from Asia, has shown a unique capacity to spread across Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Recent studies have reported its presence in two West African countries: Nigeria and Niger. Animals are frequently exchanged between Mali and Niger, which could allow the virus to enter and progress in Mali and to other West African countries. Here, PPRV samples were collected from sick goats between 2014 and 2017 in both Mali and in Senegal, on the border with Mali. Partial PPRV nucleoprotein gene was sequenced to identify the genetic lineage of the strains. Our results showed that lineage IV was present in south‐eastern Mali in 2017. This is currently the furthest West the lineage has been detected in West Africa. Surprisingly, we identified the persistence at least until 2014 of the supposedly extinct lineage I in two regions of Mali, Segou and Sikasso. Most PPRV sequences obtained in this study belonged to lineage II, which is dominant in West Africa. Phylogenetic analyses showed a close relationship between sequences obtained at the border between Senegal and Mali, supporting the hypothesis of an important movement of the virus between the two countries. Understanding the movement of animals between these countries, where the livestock trade is not fully controlled, is very important in the design of efficient control strategies to combat this devastating disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious transboundary viral disease of sheep and goats that negatively impacted the farmers and pastoralists' livelihood in Africa and Asia. To overcome the disease's consequences, the OIE and FAO are collaborating efforts to eradicate the disease once and for all. We developed a predictive model that delineates suitable territories for the virus globally in support of this eradication programme. To achieve this, we used an ecological niche modelling with an ensemble algorithm. AUC‐ROC curve, true skill statistics (TSS) and Kappa values were used to evaluate the model's performance. A TSS value greater than 0.7 was used to pool outputs of the nine model. The ensemble model has better performance than individual models by every evaluation metrics (Kappa = 0.82, TSS = 0.88 and ROC = 0.99). Annual minimum temperature (24.92%), annual maximum temperature (21.37%), goat density (18.03%) and solar radiation (14.04%) have the highest overall contribution in the ensemble model. The model indicates that India, Mongolia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Nepal, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Sudan, Angola, Nigeria, DRC, Ghana, Sierra Leon, Southern Spain, France, Albania, Montenegro, Macedonia, Italy, Armenia and Azerbaijan are highly suitable for PPRv. In 2040, suitable territories for PPRv will diminish, indicating the odds are with us in eradicating disease by 2030. We believe that this model can be used as an epidemiological tool to facilitate the global eradication programme of the disease set by the OIE and FAO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a severe disease of goats and sheep that is widespread in Africa, the Middle East and Asia. The disease is caused by peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV); cell culture‐attenuated strains of PPRV have been shown, both experimentally and by extensive use in the field, to be effective vaccines and are widely used. We have previously demonstrated that these vaccines elicit both serological (PPRV‐specific antibody) and cell‐based (PPRV‐specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells) immune responses. However, it is not known which of these responses are required for protection from PPRV, information that would be useful in the evaluation of new vaccines that are being developed to provide the capability to differentiate infected and vaccinated animals (DIVA capability). To begin to address this issue, we have used a complement‐fixing monoclonal antibody recognizing caprine CD8 to deplete >99.9% of circulating CD8+ T cells from vaccinated goats. Animals were then infected with wild‐type PPRV. Despite the absence of the CD8+ T‐cell component of the vaccine‐induced immune response, the vaccinated animals were almost fully protected, showing no pyrexia or viraemia, and almost no clinical signs. These data suggest that a virus‐specific CD8+ T‐cell response is not critical for protection against PPRV and that virus‐specific antibody and/or CD4+ T cells are the main mediators of protection. We have also shown that the leucopenia caused by infection with wild‐type PPRV affects all major classes of circulating leucocytes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small ruminant brucellosis remains endemic in many low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs), where it poses a major economic and public health burden. Lack of resources to support long‐term vaccination, inherent characteristics of small ruminant production systems such as mixing of different flocks for grazing and limitations of the vaccines currently available, which can induce abortion in pregnant animals, have all hindered the effectiveness of control programmes. In the current study, the likely effect of different control scenarios on the seroprevalence of brucellosis among the small ruminant population in a hypothetical area of an endemic region was simulated using compartmental models. The model accounts for variability in transmission rates between villages and also simulates control scenarios that target villages with high seroprevalence. Our results show that vaccination of young replacement animals only can effectively reduce the prevalence of small ruminant brucellosis in endemic settings if a high vaccination coverage is achieved. On the other hand, test‐and‐slaughter alone is not a promising strategy for control of small ruminant brucellosis under husbandry practices typical of endemic low‐resource settings. Furthermore, results show the potential success of some strategies requiring a relatively low overall vaccination coverage such as the vaccination of 50% of young replacements and 25% of adult animals each year. Control strategies selectively targeting high initial seroprevalence villages (p > 10%) did not decrease the overall seroprevalence to acceptable levels in most of the examined scenarios. Scenario analysis showed that the efficacy of the simulated control strategies can be improved mostly by decreasing the proportion of between‐village trade and also by improving the performance of the used serological tests and increasing vaccine efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus remains enzootic in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) due to insufficient control measures, including low vaccination coverage. We assessed virus epidemiology and evaluated knowledge, attitude and practice of Lao farmers and animal health stakeholders towards FMD to support politics in devising evidence‐based control measures. Sera were collected from 972 domestic ruminants in three provinces of Lao PDR: Vientiane Capital, Vientiane and Xiengkhouang provinces. Seroprevalence of antibodies directed against non‐structural proteins of FMD virus was assessed using a commercial ELISA. Positive sera were further characterized by detecting antibodies directed against the structural proteins of FMD serotypes O, A and Asia 1. Information about farm management, biosecurity practices, livestock trade, and past FMD outbreaks was obtained. Overall 35% (340/972) of the ruminants had antibodies against FMD virus with a similar seroprevalence in each province. Seroprevalence depended significantly on the ruminant species (p <.001): 61% of buffaloes, but only 41% of cattle and 15% of goats were seropositive. While antibodies against FMD serotype Asia 1 were absent, 87% (297/340) of the seropositive animals had antibodies against FMD serotype O and 32% (110/340) against FMD serotype A. Many seropositive animals (31%) had antibodies against both serotypes O and A. The majority of the farmers could name the symptoms of FMD and the susceptible animal species. Although many had likely observed FMD outbreaks in their herd and were aware of FMD vaccines, only few vaccinated their animals. This study confirms that FMD remains enzootic in at least three provinces of Lao PDR where vaccination coverage is low. It also shows the relevance of nationwide active and passive disease surveillance, as well as of vaccination campaigns using bivalent FMD vaccines and targeting all susceptible animal species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: A novel arbovirus, called Schmallenberg virus (SBV), emerged in Europe in 2011 infecting domestic as well as wild ruminants. The virus was first detected in Poland during the 2012 vector season. In order to study the SBV post‐epidemic period in Poland, over twenty‐one thousand domestic ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats) were tested for SBV infection between 2013 and 2018. Samples were collected as part of the national Bluetongue virus (BTV) surveillance programme. Thirteen per cent of all samples were collected from animals between 6 months and one year of age. Overall, 37.5% of ruminants tested seropositive. The seroprevalence fluctuated yearly and was highest in 2014 and 2017; however, seroconversion was detected in younger animals throughout the study indicating continuous virus circulation during the 6‐year study period. A significantly higher proportion of seropositive animals were detected among cattle and older animals. Uneven distribution of seropositive animals between provinces was identified and may be a result of different housing and breeding practices and/or meteorological conditions influencing local and regional vector abundances, rather than farm stocking densities. A small number of animals were identified as being exposed to both SBV and BTV; this is likely due to the fact that the same Culicoides species transmit these two viruses thus increasing the risk of co‐exposure. Considering these results, in addition to virological and entomological studies carried out in Poland previously, it can be concluded that SBV is endemic in Poland with cyclical waves of virus circulation happening every 3–4 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is an emerging Culicoides‐borne Orthobunyavirus that affects ruminant species. Between 2011 and 2013, it was responsible for a large‐scale epidemic in Europe. In the present study, we aimed to determine the seroprevalence, spatial distribution and risk factors associated with SBV exposure in sheep and goats in the region where the first Schmallenberg disease outbreak in Spain was reported. Blood samples from 1,796 small ruminants from 120 farms were collected in Andalusia (southern Spain) between 2015 and 2017. Antibodies against SBV were detected in 536 of 1,796 animals (29.8%; 95%CI: 27.7–32.0) using a commercial blocking ELISA. The individual seroprevalence according to species was 31.1% (280/900; 95%CI: 28.1–34.1) in sheep and 28.6% (256/896; 95%CI: 25.6–31.5) in goats. The farm prevalence was 76.7% (95%CI: 69.1–84.2). Seropositivity to SBV was confirmed in both sheep and goats in all provinces by virus neutralization test. Two significant (p <.001) spatial clusters of high seroprevalence were identified. The generalized estimating equation analysis showed that management system (extensive), temperature (>14ºC) and altitude (<400 metres above sea level) were risk factors associated with SBV exposure in small ruminants. Our results highlight widespread but not homogeneous circulation of SBV in small ruminant populations in Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brucellosis in small ruminants caused mainly due to Brucella melitensis is an important zoonotic disease characterized by abortion, retained placenta, infertility, orchitis, epididymitis and rarely arthritis. Small ruminants are the main source of economy for the rural and marginally poor farmers and brucellosis is resulting in huge economic losses due to abortions and infertility and causing public health concern among the small ruminant keepers. Bovine brucellosis control programme has been implemented in India and small ruminants are left out of the programme mainly due to paucity of brucellosis status. The present cross‐sectional study based on stratified random sampling was undertaken during 2017–18 to provide the nationwide brucellosis sero‐prevalence in small ruminants. A total of 24,056 small ruminant serum samples (sheep samples = 8,103 [male—2,440 and female—5,663] and goat samples = 15,953 [male—4,331 and female—11,622]) sourced from 27 out of 29 states and two out of seven union territories (UTs), 350 districts of total 640 districts (54.68% of the Indian districts) and from 1,462 villages out of 6,40,867 villages (43.83% of the Indian villages). The serum samples were tested by indirect ELISA and overall brucellosis apparent and true prevalence of 7.45 (95% CI: 7.13–7.79) and 3.79 (95% CI: 3.44–4.17) was recorded. Significantly higher brucellosis sero‐prevalence (p <.0001) was observed in sheep (11.55%) than goats (5.37%). Similarly, brucellosis seropositivity was highly significant in females compared to males in both sheep and goats. Countrywide, greater than 5% brucellosis sero‐prevalence in sheep and goats was recorded in 14 and 10 states, respectively, indicating endemicity of the disease. The study provided the latest update on nationwide spatial sero‐prevalence of small ruminant brucellosis which will aid government to strengthen regular surveillance and vaccination to reduce the disease burden and public health problems in the country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2021 Mongolia reported another PPR outbreak in sheep in the Omnogovi region of Mongolia that borders on the northern boundary of China. Peste des petits ruminants is a devastating livestock disease affecting sheep and goats as well as their wild counterparts (Dhar et al., 2002), putting at a considerable risk species' survival and ecosystem integrity. In Asia, PPR outbreaks pose a threat to wildlife populations, as documented in Mongolia in 2017 with large-scale mortality in the critically endangered saiga antelope ( I Saiga tatarica mongolica i ). [Extracted from the article]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a fatal disease of small ruminants which has spread rapidly to previously PPR‐free countries in recent decades, causing enormous economic losses in the affected regions. Here, two newly emerged PPR virus (PPRV) isolates from India and from the Middle East were tested in an animal trial to analyse their pathogenesis, and to evaluate serological and molecular detection methods. Animals infected with the two different PPRV isolates showed marked differences in clinical manifestation and scoring. The PPRV isolate from India was less virulent than the virus from the Middle East. Commercially available rapid detection methods for PPRV antigen (two Lateral Flow Devices (LFDs) and one antigen ELISA) were evaluated in comparison with a nucleic acid detection method. For this purpose, ocular and nasal swabs were used. Due to the easy non‐invasive sampling, faecal samples were also analysed. For all rapid antigen detection methods, a high specificity of 100% was observed independent of the sample matrix and dilution buffers used. Both antigen ELISA and LFD tests showed highest sensitivities for nasal swabs. Here, the detection rate of the antigen ELISA, the LFD‐PESTE‐TEST and the LFD‐ID Rapid‐Test was 78%, 75% and 78%, respectively. Ocular swabs were less suitable for antigen detection of PPRV. These results reflect the increased viral load in nasal swabs of PPRV infected goats compared to ocular swabs. The faecal samples were the least suitable for antigen detection. In conclusion, nasal swab samples are the first choice for the antigen and genome detection of PPRV. Nevertheless, based on the excellent diagnostic specificity of the rapid tests, positive results generated with other sample matrices are solid. In contrast, negative test results can be caused on the reduced analytical sensitivity of the rapid antigen tests and must be treated with caution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus member of the genus Morbillivirus, which mainly affects goats, sheep and wild ruminants. It is considered one of the most significant transboundary infectious diseases and represents an animal health concern in developing countries. Spain is considered a PPR‐free country. Nevertheless, given its geographical proximity to countries in North Africa where PPR virus (PPRV) has been circulating in recent years, the south of Spain can be considered a risk area for the introduction of PPRV. The aim of the present study was to assess circulation of PPRV in domestic and wild ruminant species in this country. During the period 2015–2017, a total of 910 sera from domestic, wild and captive ruminants were analysed using a commercial blocking ELISA to detect antibodies against PPRV. None of the 910 (0.0%; 95% CI: 0.0–0.3) animals tested were positive for anti‐PPRV antibodies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first serosurvey study of PPR in Spain. The results indicate absence of circulating PPRV in the south of Spain during the study period. Due to the risk of PPRV introduction into European countries of the Mediterranean basin, epidemiological surveillance should be maintained and extended in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was designed to characterize N gene sequences of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) isolates circulating in Pakistan and to evaluate the efficacy of available diagnostic assays on local isolates. During the study period, a total of sixty PPR outbreaks were investigated. A total of 20 selected samples from these outbreaks were sequenced for N gene. The result analysis and the phylogenetic trees indicated two different viral groups in N gene: one was closer to China and Tajikistan, while other group was similar to isolates from Iran and Saudi Arabia. Efficacy of three commercially available tests for the antigen detection of PPR, that is, peste test, enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) was compared. Keeping PCR as gold standard, sensitivity was calculated as 85% and 57% and specificity was calculated as 83% and 79% for ELISA and peste test, respectively. Value of K for ELISA was 0.67 which indicates good agreement between ELISA and RT‐PCR. Value of K for peste test was 0.33 which indicates fair agreement between peste test and RT‐PCR. In conclusion, study provides premier information about the use of different diagnostic tests and molecular situation of PPRV in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a severe, highly contagious and fatal viral disease of small ruminants causing high economic losses. Therefore, the disease was targeted for eradication by 2030. The aim of this study was to investigate for the first time the molecular and pathological characterization of the circulating PPR virus (PPRV) in sheep and goat in Palestine. Samples were collected from suspected necropsy cases of sheep and goats during recent outbreaks in two provinces in Palestine between 2017 and 2019. In this study, severe PPR outbreaks occurred in sheep and goats causing typical lesions which include erosive and ulcerative stomatitis, bronchointerstitial pneumonia and severe enteritis. For the molecular investigation of PPRV, suspected animals were examined for the presence of PPRV by RT‐PCR. PPRV genome was detected in all samples. Subsequently, two samples were used for N gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of PPRV isolates. The nucleotide sequence and phylogenetic analysis indicated that the Palestinian PPRV isolates were genetically clustered within the lineage IV isolates of the virus among populations of sheep and goats which most prevalent in Asia, the Middle East and recently Africa. Further analysis showed that the Palestinian isolates were closely related to those described in Turkey and Iraq, suggesting a common origin of PPRV isolates in the region. This information is critical to understand the molecular epidemiology of this disease in the region and helps to develop appropriate control measures for eradication of this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Like many West African countries, outbreaks of peste des petits ruminants (PPR), an economically important disease of goats and sheep, are regularly reported in Niger. The causative virus, peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), can be differentiated into four genetically distinct lineages. A publication in 2018 identified three PPRV lineages circulating in the country in 2001 (lineages I and II) and 2013 (lineage IV), respectively. In this present study, more recent samples were collected from goats and sheep in locations throughout Niger between 2011 and 2017. Twelve PPRV‐positive samples were characterized by sequencing of a segment of the nucleocapsid protein (N) gene. Phylogenetic analysis of the sequences identified viruses from lineages II and IV only. The analysis also indicated a shared origin of the viruses from Niger with PPRVs from neighbouring countries suggesting transboundary movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A cross-sectional study was carried out from November 2016 to May 2017 to identify the major ectoparasites species and potential risk factors in Welkait district western part of Tigray region. A total of 102 sheep and 324 goats were physically examined and samples were taken for laboratory analysis. Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi with a prevalence of 58 (56.86%), Amblyomma gemma 12 (11.76%), Amblyomma variegatum 27 (26.47%), Boophilus decoloratus 7 (6.86%), and Hyalomma anatolicum excavatum 1 (0.98%) in sheep and R. evertsi evertsi 108 (33.02%), A. gemma 8 (2.47%), A. variegatum 158 (48.77%), and R. B. decoloratus 19 (5.86%) in goats were the most important tick species identified. Statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) was obtained in the prevalence of A. gemma (x2 = 14.981; p = 0.001) and A. variegatum (x2 = 15.696; p = 0.001) between sheep and goats and R. B. decloratus (x2 = 8.137; p = 0.017), A. variegatum (x2 = 90.159; p = 0.00 p = 0.00), and A. gamma (x2 = 18.642; p = 0.00) in goats and A. variegatum (x2 = 71.081; p = 0.00) and R. B. decloratus (x2 = 28.980; p = 0.001) in sheep by agroecology. R. evertsi evertsi (x2 = 13.400; p = 0.001) and A. variegatum (x2 = 13.511; p = 0.001) in goats and R. B. decoloratus (x2 = 71.892; p = 0.001) and A. gemma (x2 = 6.414; p = 0.040) in sheep were found to have statistically significant association (p < 0.05) in the prevalence among different body condition categories in the present study. R. evertsi evertsi (x2 = 6.557; p = 0.010) and R. B. decoloratus (x2 = 4.856; p = 0.028) in goats and R. evertsi evertsi (x2 = 5.776; p = 0.016) in sheep by sex group and R. evertsi evertsi (x2 = 40.556; p = 0.001) and A. variegatum (x2 = 7.214; p = 0.007) in goats by age group were also statistically associated (p < 0.05). Infestation rate of R. evertsi evertsi (x2 = 7.136; p = 0.008), R. B. decoloratus (x2 = 9.621; p = 0.002), and A. variegatum (x2 = 10.372; p = 0.001) in goats between flock type had statistically significant association (p < 0.05) in this study. The current result revealed that Linognathus stenopsis was the second highest prevalent ectoparasite with an overall prevalence of 0.00% in sheep and 25.93% in goats. There was a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) in the prevalence of L. stenopsis (x2 = 32.940; p = 0.001) between the two species and in body condition category (x2 = 10.700; p = 0.005) in goats in the present study. Moreover, Ctenocephalides canis and Ctenocephalides felis were the flea species found in the present report. Significant variation (p < 0.05) in C. canis prevalence among different agroecology (x2 = 10.264; p = 0.006) in goats and between adult and young age (x2 = 5.052; p = 0.025) in sheep and (x2 = 21.267; p = 0.001) in goats was obtained in the present study. Sarcoptes scapie var. caprea with a prevalence of 0 (0.00%) in sheep and 4 (1.23%) in goats had no significant association (p > 0.05) in all the risk factors considered. The present result indicated that ectoparasites especially tick species were more prevalent in small ruminants and may affect the wellbeing and productivity of goats and sheep in the study district. Therefore, well-coordinated and urgent control intervention should be conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infection with the Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is a highly devastating viral infection of small ruminants. Dromedary camels live in close proximity of small ruminants in Arabian Peninsula (AP) and many other regions in the world. Little is known about the reasons behind continuous PPRV emergence in Saudi Arabia (KSA). Our objective was to test some dromedary camel population across the kingdom for the presence of specific PPRV antibodies. Our results show detection of specific PPRV antibodies (2.92%) in sera of tested dromedary camels from the eastern and south regions of the KSA. Our results suggest the exposure of dromedary camels to PPRV infection. Thus, dromedary camels may play some important roles in the sustainability of PPRV in the small ruminants across the AP. This is the first study examined the nationwide prevalence of the PPRV in dromedary camels in the KSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Small ruminant morbillivirus or peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is an acute and highly contagious viral disease of goats, sheep, and other livestock. This study aimed at predicting an effective multiepitope vaccine against PPRV from the immunogenic proteins haemagglutinin (H), matrix (M), fusion (F), and nucleoprotein (N) using immunoinformatics tools.Materials and Methods: The sequences of the immunogenic proteins were retrieved from GenBank of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). BioEdit software was used to align each protein from the retrieved sequences for conservancy. Immune Epitope Database (IEDB) analysis resources were used to predict B and T cell epitopes. For B cells, the criteria for electing epitopes depend on the epitope linearity, surface accessibility, and antigenicity.Results: Nine epitopes from the H protein, eight epitopes from the M protein, and ten epitopes from each of the F and N proteins were predicted as linear epitopes. The surface accessibility method proposed seven surface epitopes from each of the H and F proteins in addition to six and four epitopes from the M and N proteins, respectively. For antigenicity, only two epitopes 142PPERV146 and 63DPLSP67 were predicted as antigenic from H and M, respectively. For T cells, MHC-I binding prediction tools showed multiple epitopes that interacted strongly with BoLA alleles. For instance, the epitope 45MFLSLIGLL53 from the H protein interacted with four BoLA alleles, while 276FKKILCYPL284 predicted from the M protein interacted with two alleles. Although F and N proteins demonstrated no favorable interaction with B cells, they strongly interacted with T cells. For instance, 358STKSCARTL366 from the F protein interacted with five alleles, followed by 340SQNALYPMS348 and 442IDLGPAISL450 that interacted with three alleles each. The epitopes from the N protein displayed strong interaction with BoLA alleles such as 490RSAEALFRL498 that interacted with five alleles, followed by two epitopes 2ATLLKSLAL10 and 304QQLGEVAPY312 that interacted with four alleles each. In addition to that, four epitopes 3TLLKSLALF11 , 356YFDPAYFRL364 , 360AYFRLGQEM368 , and 412PRQAQVSFL420 interacted with three alleles each.Conclusion: Fourteen epitopes were predicted as promising vaccine candidates against PPRV from four immunogenic proteins. These epitopes should be validated experimentally through in vitro and in vivo studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious disease of small ruminants. The purpose of this study was to investigate the epidemic characteristics of PPR outbreaks in the People's Republic of China (PR China) from 2013 to 2018. A total of 41,876 PPR outbreaks were recorded in small ruminant populations in PR China during that period. Data from February to June 2018 were used to study new developments in the PPR epidemic in PR China. Spatio‐temporal clusters and temporal distribution patterns were studied based on PPR notifications. We also used multiple logistic regression to examine the contribution of anthropogenic, climatic and topographic factors to PPR outbreaks. Distance to the nearest road (OR = 1.007 [95% CI: 1.001–1.014]), price of mutton (OR = 1.904 [95% CI: 1.358–2.668]) and mean monthly temperature in July (OR 1.156 = [95% CI: 1.110–1.204]) showed positive effects on PPR outbreaks. Negative effects were observed for number of large‐scale farms (OR = 0.962 [95% CI: 0.940–0.985]). We also found that observed patterns of seasonality were characterized by peaks in April of 2014. Spatio‐temporal clusters occurred in Yunnan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Heilongjiang province and Chongqing municipality. Hunan province reported PPR occurrences every year from 2014 to June 2018. Yunnan, Jiangsu and Anhui province have 56, 33 and 30 epidemic locations, respectively. PPR infections were first reported as the cause of death for 19 wild bharals in Qinghai province in 2018. All of this suggests that domestic trading of sheep and goats may be closely related to the spread of PPR. Prophylactic immunization in suspected animal populations or areas is recommended for the control of PPR and wild small ruminants should be monitored. Results presented here provide improved knowledge about PPR dynamics in PR China, which could be helpful in designing more effective prevention strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In December 2017, Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) emerged in Burundi (East Africa) and rapidly spread to five provinces (Gitega, Kirundo, Mwaro, Muramvya and Karuzi) in the country, causing severe disease and killing more than 4,000 goats in the province of Gitega alone. An initial outbreak investigation was conducted in December 2017 by the Burundi Government Veterinary Services and samples were collected for laboratory confirmation. A competitive Enzyme Linked Immuno‐Sorbent Assay (cELISA: Chinese Patent No. ZL201210278970.9) supplied by the Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute was used to test 112 sera and results showed around 37.5% positive samples. This high level of PPR positive sera in an animal population where PPR infection and vaccination had not been previously reported indicated the exposure of the animals to PPRV. Subsequently in January 2018, the laboratory tests conducted at the African Union‐Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU‐PANVAC) laboratories following a joint investigative mission by the African Union‐Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources (AU‐IBAR), AU‐PANVAC and the East African Community (EAC) confirmed the presence of PPR in Burundi. Samples tested by conventional RT‐PCR indicated the presence of the PPR virus (PPRV). Confirmatory isolation of the virus was also performed. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the virus belongs to lineage III and shows a close relationship with PPRV isolates from Kenya in 2011 and Uganda in 2012. A possible explanation for the outbreaks of PPR in Burundi between December 2017 and February 2018 is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the period spanning November 2013 to November 2018, 294 outbreak cases of PPR were diagnosed. Spatio‐temporal cluster analysis was performed to determine whether or not areas and time periods with significant aggregation of PPR outbreaks occurred. High‐risk areas for PPR outbreaks in China were detected using the presence‐only maximum entropy ecological niche model. The analysis identified three statistically significant disease clusters. Precipitation of driest month was identified as the most important predictor for PPRV occurrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The study evaluated the effectiveness of 'Mass Vaccination Campaign (MVC)' implemented against the contagious transboundary OIE notified Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in sheep and goats on the lines of 'pulse polio campaign' for humans in Chhattisgarh state, India. The effectiveness was evaluated on the axes of adequacy, financial viability under with and without MVC through differencing under various scenarios and options and programme impact from a farmer's perspective. The adequacy evaluation revealed that the reported outbreaks, diagnosed and death cases declined under PPR‐MVC inconsonance with increased vaccination coverage. Furthermore, the seroconversion increased during post PPR‐MVC implies elevated immunity levels in the sheep and goat population. The estimated mean mortality loss was USD 45.2 and USD 16.5 per animal in goats and sheep, respectively, whereas the treatment and opportunity cost of labour was USD 1.9 and USD 2.5 per animal respectively. Under the low PPR incidence scenario, benefit: cost ratio, net present value and internal rate of return were 4.9:1, 48.9 million USD and 146.6%, whereas it was 12.4:1,142.7 million USD and 430.4% and 13.5:1,156.7 million USD and 430.4% under medium and high incidence scenarios. Furthermore, the option of vaccinating 100% risk population during the first year followed by 30% during subsequent years to cover naïve population will maximize benefits than 100% coverage every year; nevertheless, benefits outweighs cost manifolds in both of these options. The farmers had a positive opinion on the overall services provided under PPR‐MVC and the results provide the empirical evidence on effectiveness of 'mass vaccination' for its replication in other states of India or countries with similar socio‐economic and rearing environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Disease reporting is an essential frontline component of surveillance systems, particularly for detecting incursions of new and emerging diseases. It has the advantages of being comprehensive and continuous, with the potential to reduce the time of disease detection and the extent of consequent spread. A number of exotic diseases, including sheep and goat pox, lumpy skin disease, peste des petits ruminants and foot and mouth disease have historically entered into south‐eastern Europe through the Thrace region, which extends across neighbouring areas of Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey. In this high‐risk area, multiple factors can reduce the sensitivity of disease reporting across the diverse production systems and animal health services need robust and effective disease reporting systems. While describing a training exercise designed to provide animal health services of the three countries with the knowledge and skills for conducting comprehensive in‐country assessments, we provide an initial evaluation of the sensitivity of foot and mouth disease reporting and identify gaps and constraints in the Thrace region. An expert elicitation approach was used to consult official veterinarians from central and local animal health authorities of the three countries, and scenario trees modelling was applied to analyse the collected data. The reported sensitivity of disease reporting often varied between the central and local veterinary authorities within the three countries. Awareness of clinical disease, of reporting procedures and of biosecurity measures affected the early stages of disease reporting, particularly in the production systems identified at lower reporting sensitivity such as small ruminant's herds, mixed bovine herds and backyard herds. Despite its limitations this training exercise provided an effective framework (a) to develop capacities of the veterinary services in the region and (b) to supply initial evidence for guiding further interventions targeting those sectors and stakeholders at lower reporting sensitivity to reduce risks of disease introduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A study was conducted to determine the presence of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in camel population kept together with small ruminants in Isiolo, Mandera, Marsabit, and Wajir counties of Kenya. This was done in the wake of a disease with unknown etiology "Camel Sudden Death Syndrome" camels in the horn of Africa. Thirty-eight (38) samples, 12, 8, 15, and 3 samples, were collected from Mandera, Wajir, Isiolo, and Marsabit, respectively, from 25 camels, 7 goats, and 4 sheep. One camel in Mandera and one goat in Wajir were confirmed positive for PPR virus (PPRV) through reverse Polymerase Chain Reaction. The analysis of sequences revealed closest nucleotide identities of obtained sequences from both goat and camel to the lineage III of PPRV albeit with 60.29% of nucleotide identity. This study establishes that camels in the study area suffer with PPR manifest clinical signs that are mainly characterized by inappetence, loss of body condition, and general weakness terminally leading to diarrhea, conjunctivitis, and ocular nasal discharges preceding death. These clinical signs are similar to those observed in small ruminants with slight variations of manifestations such as keratoconjunctivitis as well as edema of the ventral surface of the abdomen. This shows that camels could be involved in the epidemiology of PPR in the region and that PPRV could be involved in the epidemics of Camel Sudden Death syndrome. There is therefore a need for resources to be dedicated in understanding the role camels play in the epidemiology of PPR and the role of the disease in Camels Sudden death syndrome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a devastating disease of small ruminants that significantly hinders productivity in endemic areas. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania reported their first cases in each country between 2006 and 2008 despite the disease being present in the region (Ethiopia and Sudan) since the 1990s. The time leading up to the outbreaks involved refugee movements, drought, civil unrest, and resulted in increased animal mingling, movement and density in these regions. Refugee camps with animal source food demands and a robust informal economy further added to the development of animal mingling and movement as well. Once introduced, common pastoral migration lands and trade routes likely transported the disease throughout the region. This paper highlights why trade routes, refugee camps and areas of animal crowding during droughts should be targeted for interventions, monitoring and surveillance as part of PPR control in a region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) is an economically important transboundary viral disease of goats. This study aimed to determine a baseline of serological evidence for Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) in Lao goats. A total of 1,072 serum samples were collected by convenience sampling across five provinces in Laos and tested for antibody response to PPRV using a commercially available competitive ELISA. Positive antibody responses were found in 2.2% (95% CI 1.4, 3.2) of the samples. True prevalence calculations indicated a total overall sample prevalence of 1.7% (95% CI 0.9, 2.8). The highest provincial seroprevalences were Xiangkhouang (3.5%, 95% CI 1.6, 6.9) and Xayaboury (2.9% (95% CI 1.3, 5.7). There was no association between antibody response and each of the following factors: location, breed, gender or age. Considering the apparent absence of disease manifestation of PPR in Laos, likely explanations for the antibody positivity could include cross reaction to other Morbilliviruses such as Measles or Canine Distemper, importation of pre‐vaccinated goats, need for test cut‐off re‐evaluation to be region specific, or a subclinical and a less virulent circulating virus. This study highlights that the sampled Lao goat population is highly likely to be naïve to PPRV and therefore at risk of an outbreak, possibly by transboundary incursion of livestock from PPR endemic China. Further work is required in the testing of small ruminants in Laos that may eventually provide evidence for a status of freedom from disease, particularly in support of programs aimed at global PPR eradication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent outbreaks of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in the Marmara region of Turkey including the European part of Thrace is important due to its proximity to Europe (Greece and Bulgaria) and the potential threat of spread of PPR into mainland Europe. In order to investigate the circulation of PPRV in the region suspect clinical and necropsy samples were collected from domestic sheep (n = 211) in the Marmara region of Turkey between 2011 and 2012. PPR virus (PPRV) genome was detected in 10.4% (22 out of 211) of sheep samples by real‐time RT‐PCR, and PPR virus was isolated from lungs of two sheep that died from infection. Of the 22 positive samples nine were used for partial N‐gene amplification and sequencing. The phylogenetic analyses indicated that the virus belongs to lineage IV, the same lineage that is circulating in eastern and central part of Turkey since its first official report in 1999. In addition, samples from 100 cattle were collected to investigate potential subclinical circulation of PPRV. However all were found to be negative by real‐time RT‐PCR, and also in serological tests indicating the large ruminants were likely not exposed or infected with the virus. The impact of these findings on the potential threat of spread of PPR to Europe including the first PPR outbreak in Europe in Bulgaria on 23rd June 2018 is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Tunisia, 86 outbreaks of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) were reported in ovine and caprine herds in 2016. Molecular characterization of PPRV strains was carried out by partial sequencing of nucleoprotein (Np) gene from diagnostic specimens. The results showed that disease outbreaks were caused by virus strains closely related to PPRV strains collected in Egypt in 2014 and 2015. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an endemic and highly infectious disease of several tropical countries, including Pakistan. Despite exhaustive vaccination, outbreaks are on the rise annually across different parts of the country. Clinical outcomes are largely employed to diagnose disease, while comprehensive genomic features of prevailing field strains of SRMV largely remain elusive. Here, we present comparative sequence‐based phylogenomics of field strains from three districts representing different agro‐livestock production systems during an emerging wave of outbreaks in 2015, together with the first complete genome sequencing of a strain from Pakistan. The analysis revealed clustering of study strain (SRMV/Lahore/UVAS/Pak/2015) to lineage IV, close to isolates characterized previously from India and China. Investigations of inter‐ and intralineage genetic distances showed a higher genetic distance between SRMV/Lahore/UVAS/Pak/2015 to lineage III viruses than lineages I and II. The characterized Pakistani strain also showed a high percentage of genetic distance from isolates originated from Nigerian and other African small ruminants. Based on these observations, an integrated cross‐protection investigation is warranted in the future, not only to define the protective efficacy of currently applied vaccines, but also to continuously elucidate the genomic and evolutionary nature of circulating viruses in the country to achieve disease eradication by 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Peste‐des‐petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious transboundary viral disease of small ruminants, which is endemic in much of Africa, the Middle East and Asia. In South Asia, PPR is of significant concern to the Indian subcontinent including Bangladesh as more than 30% of the world's sheep and goats are farmed in this region, predominantly by small, poor and marginal farmers. PPR virus was detected and isolated from goat milk from field samples from PPR outbreaks (2012–2015) in Bangladesh and its full‐length sequences obtained. Sequence analysis of the partial N gene of Bangladesh isolates showed 99.3%–100% identity whereas 98.2%–99.6% identity was observed when compared with neighbouring Indian viruses. Further analysis of the full‐length genomes indicated that the Bangladesh isolates were 99.3%–99.99% identical among themselves and 98.3%–98.4% identical to neighbouring Indian viruses. These findings further support the transboundary transmission of PPR virus across the Indian and Bangladesh border. In additional, the establishment of a cross‐border strategy between India and Bangladesh will be of paramount importance for the eradication of PPR in this region. Molecular detection and isolation of PPR virus from milk is of significant potential concern for spread of the disease to free areas as the major producers of goat milk globally are PPR endemic countries in particular India and Bangladesh, as well as Sudan. Milk is a noninvasive sample type and bulk goat milk sampling for the detection of PPRV would be of practical significance for regional surveillance of PPRV as progress is made towards the targeted 2030 eradication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]