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The endogenous X-linked phosphatidyl inositol glycan class A gene (Pig-a) can be used as a reporter of in vivo somatic cell mutation in rats and mice. Pig-a mutant cells are deficient in specific protein surface markers and can be identified and quantified by immunofluorescent staining followed by high-throughput flow cytometry. Pig-a mutation detection is commonly performed with red blood cells (RBCs) because: (1) the low volumes of blood required for determining mutant frequencies in RBCs allow multiple samplings on small laboratory animals over extended periods of time; (2) the execution of the RBC assay is easy and the interpretation of the results is straightforward; and (3) RBC Pig-a mutant frequencies are known within hours of sample collection. Two endpoints are determined in the assay: the frequency of mutant total RBCs and the frequency of mutant reticulocytes. When Pig-a mutation is used to assess the in vivo mutagenic potential of suspect hazards, the frequency of mutant reticulocytes is an early indicator of mutagenic potential, while the mutant frequency in total RBCs can be measured more rapidly and with greater precision.

Determining mutant frequencies in endogenous reporter genes is a tool for identifying potentially genotoxic environmental agents, and discovering phenotypes prone to genomic instability and diseases, such as cancer. Here, we describe a high-throughput method for identifying mouse spleen lymphocytes with mutations in the endogenous X-linked hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (Hprt) gene and the endogenous autosomal thymidine kinase (Tk) gene. The selective clonal expansion of mutant lymphocytes is based upon the phenotypic properties of HPRT- and TK-deficient cells. The same procedure can be utilized for quantifying Hprt mutations in most strains of mice (and, with minor changes, in other mammalian species), while mutations in the Tk gene can be determined only in transgenic mice that are heterozygous for inactivation of this gene. Expanded mutant clones can be further analyzed to classify the types of mutations in the Tk gene (small intragenic mutations vs. large chromosomal mutations) and to determine the nature of intragenic mutation at both the Hprt and Tk genes.

Assays for in vivo mutation are used to identify genotoxic hazards and phenotypes prone to genomic instability and cancer. The hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (Hprt) gene and the phosphatidyl inositol glycan, class A (Pig-a) gene are endogenous X-linked genes that can be used as reporters of mutation in peripheral blood lymphocytes from most mammals. Here we describe methodology for measuring Hprt and Pig-a mutation in rat T-lymphocytes. The identification and selective expansion of mutant lymphocytes is based upon the phenotypic properties of Hprt- and Pig-a-deficient cells, that is, resistance to the purine analog, 6-thioguanine, or to the bacterial toxin, proaerolysin. Expanded mutants can be further analyzed by sequencing cDNA from the target transcripts for identification of small sequence alterations and by multiplex PCR analysis of genomic DNA for the detection of deletions.

The Pig-a assay is being developed as an in vivo gene mutation assay for regulatory safety assessments. The assay is based on detecting mutation in the endogenous Pig-a gene of treated rats by using flow cytometry to measure changes in cell surface markers of peripheral blood cells. Here we present a methodology for demonstrating that phenotypically mutant rat T-cells identified by flow cytometry contain mutations in the Pig-a gene, an important step for validating the assay. In our approach, the mutant phenotype T-cells are sorted into individual wells of 96-well plates and expanded into clones. Subsequent sequencing of genomic DNA from the expanded clones confirms that the Pig-a assay detects exactly what it claims to detect-cells with mutations in the endogenous Pig-a gene. In addition, determining the spectra of Pig-a mutations provides information for better understanding the mutational mechanism of compounds of interest. Our methodology of combining phenotypic antibody labeling, magnetic enrichment, sorting, and single-cell clonal expansion can be used in genotoxicity/mutagenicity studies and in other general immunotoxicology research requiring identification, isolation, and expansion of extremely rare subpopulations of T-cells.

Transgenic mutation assays are used to identify and characterize genotoxic hazards and for determining the mode of action for carcinogens. The three most popular transgenic mutational models are Big Blue® (rats or mice), Muta™ mouse (mice), and gpt-delta (rats or mice). The Big Blue® and Muta™ mouse models use the cII gene as a reporter of mutation whereas gpt-delta rodents use the gpt gene and the red/gam genes (Spi⁻ selection) as mutation reporter genes. Here we describe methodology for conducting mutation assays with these transgenes. Transgenes recovered from tissue DNA are packaged into infectious lambda phage, bacteria are infected with the phage, and cII-mutant and Spi⁻ plaques and gpt-mutant colonies are isolated using selective conditions and quantified. Selected mutants can be further analyzed for identification of small sequence alterations in the cII and gpt genes and large deletions at the Spi⁻ locus.

Assays for in vivo mutation are used to identify genotoxic hazards and phenotypes prone to genomic instability and cancer. The hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (Hprt) gene and the phosphatidyl inositol glycan, class A (Pig-a) gene are endogenous X-linked genes that can be used as reporters of mutation in peripheral blood lymphocytes from most mammals. Here we describe methodology for measuring Hprt and Pig-a mutation in rat T-lymphocytes. The identification and selective expansion of mutant lymphocytes are based upon the phenotypic properties of Hprt- and Pig-a-deficient cells, i.e., resistance to the purine analog, 6-thioguanine, or to the bacterial toxin, proaerolysin. Expanded mutants can be further analyzed by sequencing cDNA from the target transcripts for identification of small sequence alterations and by multiplex PCR analysis of genomic DNA for the detection of deletions.

Determining mutant frequencies in endogenous reporter genes is a tool for identifying potentially genotoxic environmental agents and discovering phenotypes prone to genomic instability and diseases, such as cancer. Here we describe a high-throughput method for identifying mouse spleen lymphocytes having mutations in the endogenous X-linked hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (Hprt) gene and the endogenous autosomal thymidine kinase (Tk) gene. The selective expansion of mutant lymphocytes is based on the phenotypic properties of Hprt- and Tk-deficient cells. The same procedure can be utilized for quantitating Hprt mutations in most strains of mice (and, with minor changes, in other mammalian species), whereas mutations in the Tk gene can be determined only in transgenic mice that are heterozygous for inactivation of this gene. Expanded mutants can be further used to classify the types of mutations in the Tk gene (small intragenic mutations vs large chromosomal mutations) and to determine the nature of intragenic mutation in both the Hprt and Tk genes.

Methods that detect rare base substitutions within populations of DNA molecules are valuable tools for studying the DNA-damaging effects of chemicals and for pool screening for single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Allele-specific competitive blocker-polymerase chain reaction (ACB-PCR) uses a mutant-specific PCR primer with more 3'-terminal mismatches to an abundant or wild-type sequence than to a rare or mutant sequence in order to amplify specifically an allele that differs from the wild-type by a single base pair. ACB-PCR reactions include a blocker primer to reduce the amount of background signal generated from the abundant wild-type template. The nonextendable blocker primer preferentially anneals to the wild-type DNA sequence, thereby excluding the annealing of the extendable mutant-specific primer to the wild-type sequence. Inclusion of single-strand DNA binding protein in the ACB-PCR reaction and use of the Stoffel fragment of Taq DNA polymerase both significantly increase allele discrimination. The concurrent analysis of mutant fraction standards and equivalent PCR products amplified from genomic DNA samples makes ACB-PCR a quantitative method that can detect a base pair substitution in the presence of a 105-fold excess of wild-type DNA. Methods for the ACB-PCR measurement of the mouse H-ras codon 61 CAA --> AAA mutation are presented.