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Epoxy resin is widely deployed as a high voltage electrical insulation material when compounded with inorganic fillers. However, in the laboratory, the filler prevents visual observation of the long-term degradation known as electrical treeing. To date therefore, much laboratory testing has been conducted on unrepresentative unfilled materials. Here, the impact of micro-sized fillers on the treeing phenomenon in an epoxy system has been explored. Sub-micrometre resolution 3D reconstructions of electrical trees are reported from X-ray computed tomography (XCT) using an advanced ‘pink beam’ synchrotron light source imaging system. The role of filler particles between 1 and 10 μm in size on tree channel propagation is reported. In highly filled materials (30% by weight) a radical change in tree growth behavior is seen, leading to bush tree rather than branch tree growth. The dielectric breakdown time at constant stress was also found to increase as the square root of the filler level. The change in geometry of tree growth may explain the extended life of filled materials in high voltage applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports observations of electrical tree growth by X-ray computed tomography (XCT) in multiple steps. Growth between times of observation has been obtained by subtraction of an image from the subsequent one. Partial discharge (PD) signals were also recorded during tree growth. It is determined that not all PDs support tree extension. By comparing the energy released by PD and the vaporization energy of newly grown tree channels, it is found that only the PDs that reach the tree tips can contribute to the growth of tree length. In such cases, the efficiency of energy conversion was very high, whereas PD resulting in increases in tree channel diameter had a much lower conversion efficiency. Nano XCT images reveal many finer branches along the trunk of the main tree and in the front of the main channel tree tips. It seems that those finer branches led to tree growth, but were not directly associated with local PD. The new imaging techniques have shown great value in resolving the relationship between partial discharge activity and electrical tree growth, providing a platform for deeper understanding of the tree growth process, and interpretation of partial discharge measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric tree growth is a key ageing mechanism leading to breakdown of high voltage electrical insulation. Partial discharges (PDs) are invariably associated with electrical tree inception and propagation. In turn, the physical structure of an electrical tree influences the characteristics of partial discharge activity. Interpretation of PD patterns is therefore central to developing an understanding of the tree propagation process, and also to the use of PD patterns as an asset management tool. Our previous research indicates that the phase resolved PD (PRPD) patterns and pulse sequence analysis (PSA) patterns evolve with tree propagation. A method was proposed to estimate the point-on-wave inception and extinction voltages of PDs in tree channels within each power cycle. It was shown that the evolution of PD patterns is a consequence of changes to PD inception and extinction voltages as a tree develops. This paper provides a deterministic model of partial discharge in tree channels. Simulations of PDs in a straight non-conductive tree channel are based on experimental PD inception, extinction and residual voltages. The quantitative simulations reproduce almost all the characteristics of observed PRPD and PSA patterns. It is concluded that PD events are determined by five key parameters: tree structure, applied voltage, PD inception voltage, PD extinction voltage and PD residual voltage. Key parameters estimated by the method, and the models proposed explain PD activity in non-conductive trees. It is suggested that the PSA and PRPD patterns should be discussed together to fully understand the PD events. This model forms a platform for generating robust information for asset managers using PD measurements from high voltage equipment in service. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Partial discharge (PD) characteristics are inherently linked to associated electrical tree growth characteristics. This paper employs both phase-resolved patterns and pulse-sequence analysis (PSA) to study PDs in a short branch-tree grown from a metallic needle tip. It is found that the shape of PSA dV-dV patterns vary with applied voltage; in particular the values of characteristic voltage difference increase with applied voltage. At 10 kV the value of characteristic voltage difference decreases with tree growth, the average number of PDs per cycle increases, the PD magnitudes decrease, and the characteristic wing-like phase-resolved pattern evolves into a turtle-like pattern. This paper proposes a physical model relating PD activity to tree development, considering space charge accumulation inside the tree channel. All key features of experimental results are explained by the model. It is shown that the characteristic voltage differences are determined by the local PD inception and extinction electric fields. These key parameters determining the PD events can be calculated giving a clear physical interpretation of PD measurements, which is invaluable to those using PD as a condition monitoring or asset management tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electrical trees are widely grown in laboratories from metallic needle electrodes to enable the degradation process to proceed rapidly at voltages of ∼10 kV AC. Here it is shown that cone-shaped air gaps may form at a needle tip, even when they are not visible optically. Using X-ray imaging techniques, samples with and without air gaps up to 55 μm long have been characterized. The presence of air gaps led to partial discharge (PD) patterns resembling void-discharges. Prior to tree initiation, discharge characteristics evolved with increased voltage increments and increased phase lag behind the applied voltage. These changes to PD characteristics reflect a change in the physical state of the air gap. Although samples with air gaps generally initiated trees quicker than those with no gap, PD activities did not appear to play a decisive role in tree initiation times. However, initial voids were found to have major impact on the subsequent tree growth. In samples with persistent pre-tree air-gap PDs, trees grew larger branchy structures with higher PD magnitudes. In addition, the PDs became more asymmetric between positive and negative half-cycles than occurred in samples with no air gaps. It is shown that understanding the interface between the needle and polymer at a micron scale is critical to interpretation of laboratory tree growth experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]