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The need for enhancing image spatial resolution has motivated the researchers to propose numerous super-resolution (SR) techniques, including those developed specifically for hyperspectral data. Despite significant advancements in this field attributed to deep learning, little attention has been given to evaluating the practical value of super-resolved images in specific applications. Most methods are validated in application-independent scenarios, often using simulated low-resolution images, resulting in overly optimistic conclusions. In this article, we propose task-based evaluation strategies for hyperspectral image SR and we present results obtained with various approaches that include pansharpening, multispectral–hyperspectral data fusion, and single-image SR. We demonstrate that the proposed framework allows us to highlight both benefits and limitations of each method and can, therefore, guide the development of SR techniques suitable for real-world applications.

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) are extensively utilized in several fields due to their abundant spectral band, particularly for tasks like ground object classification and environmental monitoring. However, as a result of equipment and imaging condition constraints, HSI frequently demonstrates a restricted spatial resolution. The fusion of a low-resolution HSI and a high-resolution multispectral image (HR-MSI) of the same scene is a crucial method for generating an HR-HSI. At present, due to factors, such as complexity and GPU memory limitation, most of the HSI–MSI fusion algorithms based on deep learning (DL) cannot utilize the transformer module well to capture the long-range dependence information in large-size remote sensing images. At the same time, the lack of a large amount of high-quality training data has become an important problem that affects the performance of fusion algorithms based on DL. In response to the above issues, this article introduces a new unsupervised multiscale transformer fusion (UMTF) network, called UMTF-Net, which enables HSI–MSI fusion without the need for additional training data. UMTF-Net is composed of an HSI fusion network and a U-network (U-Net)-based multiscale feature extraction network. In order to learn the cross-feature spatial similarity and long-range dependency of MSI and HSI, we first extract the multiscale features of MSI using the U-Net-based multiscale feature extraction network. We then input these features into the corresponding scale cross-feature fusion transformer module in the HSI fusion network to conduct feature fusion. Then, we input the fused features into the spatial spectral fuse attention module for spatial spectral feature enhancement, and finally generate HR-HSI. Comparing UMTF-Net to other advanced methods, the fusion results from three datasets and multiple ablation experiments indicate that our method performs excellently in different evaluations.

Elevation information from light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data relieve the phenomenon of “same spectrum with different object” in hyperspectral images (HSI) classification. Consequently, HSI and LiDAR joint classification is a significant research topic. However, existing methods encounter several challenges. Primarily, there exists a deficiency in intraclass information interaction and underutilization of discriminative feature. Furthermore, the process of labeling samples is time-consuming and laborious. To solve the aforementioned issues, a classification method based on pseudolabeled contrastive learning is proposed to exploit substantial amounts of unlabeled information in order to enhance intraclass information interaction. The proposed method is divided into two stages for semisupervised classification. In the first stage, an unsupervised feature extraction network is designed to improve the interaction of features from multimodal data. A multimodal data cross-attention module is proposed to enhance the interaction of multimodal information at corresponding locations. Exploiting pseudolabeling contrastive learning module facilitates the interaction of information between intraclass objects. In the second stage, supervised classification with a limited number of labeled samples is performed. The multisource discriminatively consolidate feature module is designed to generate discriminative features, which are used to guide the fusion feature enhancement process. Apart from this, this module leverages multiscale features to expand the receptive field. Tested on both self-constructed and public datasets, the proposed method provides higher classification accuracy than some existing methods with a limited amount of labeled samples.

Anomaly detection (AD) aiming to locate targets distinct from the surrounding background spectra remains a challenging task in hyperspectral applications. The methods based on low-rank decomposition utilize the inherent low-rank characteristic of hyperspectral images (HSIs), which has attracted great interest and achieved many advances in recent years. In order to fully consider the characteristics of HSIs, more appropriate constrains need to be added to the low-rank model. However, there are too many regularizations and mutual constraints between regularizers, which would result in a reduction in detection accuracy, while an increasing number of tradeoff parameters complicates parameter tuning. To address the above problems, we propose a novel method based on merging total variation into low-rank representation (MTVLRR) for hyperspectral AD in this article, using a regularizer to reflect the low-rankness and smoothness of the background component of HSIs simultaneously, which can significantly decrease the mutual influence of regularizers and the difficulty of parameter tuning. Experimental results on both simulated and real hyperspectral datasets demonstrate that the proposed MTVLRR has an excellent AD performance in terms of detection accuracy compared with other state-of-the-art methods.

When oil spills occur at sea, effective detection and monitoring are required to establish a successful response plan, and remote sensing emerges as an appropriate technology to support this process. Furthermore, Earth observation is progressively relying on low-cost multispectral sensors developed for monitoring particular features across various scenarios. However, despite these advancements, the ongoing challenge lies in reducing computational costs, resource requirements, and energy consumption. This work aims to select the spectral index that best detects coastal spills among those documented. The long-term goal is to develop a low-cost multispectral sensor with suitable bands. For this purpose, this study uses data from different sensors that acquired data of the Deepwater Horizon accident in the Gulf of Mexico. The confusion matrices, accuracy, and F1-score generated from the kNN pixel classification based on the indices values are measures of its performance. For this study, the recently introduced normalized difference oil index (NDOI) proves to be the best option for identifying coastal spills since it minimizes the false positives related to suspended sand and is quick to calculate. In addition, it has demonstrated that it helps distinguish different spill thicknesses and estimates the oil volume. Therefore, future research will focus on developing and validating a low-cost multispectral system that uses the NDOI bands to detect spills.

Deep learning methodologies have demonstrated considerable effectiveness in hyperspectral anomaly detection (HAD). However, the practicality of deep learning-based HAD in real-world applications is impeded by challenges arising from limited labeled data, large-scale hyperspectral images (HSIs), and constrained computational resources. In light of these challenges, this article introduces a convolutional neural network (CNN)-based HAD model through the incorporation of Tucker decomposition, named TD-CNND. Drawing inspiration from transfer learning, the proposed model initially constructs pixel sample pairs from known labeled HSIs in the source domain, feeding them into the designed CNN to train the network learning spectral feature differences to obtain a CNN containing knowledge from the source domain. Subsequently, to prevent the need for network retraining caused by structural changes and to reduce model parameters for improving detecting timeliness, a general network compression scheme based on Tucker decomposition is applied to the CNN, where the convolutional layers of the above CNN undergo Tucker tensor decomposition to compress the network and alleviate parameter redundancy. Finally, spectral features realignment is used to recover the detection accuracy loss caused by Tucker tensor decomposition. In addition, a dual-windows structure is implemented during the detection phase, incorporating spatial information to the aforementioned spectral-level learning model, facilitating spectral-spatial collaborative HAD. Experimental evaluations using three real hyperspectral datasets and artificially expanded datasets demonstrate that, in comparison with state-of-the-art methods, the proposed TD-CNND method exhibits effectiveness and superiority in terms of both time cost and detection accuracy, where the notable advantages in terms of time cost become more pronounced with an increasing number of pixels.

Change detection on hyperspectral images (HSIs) is an essential task for Earth observation. Due to the vast amounts of remote sensing (RS) Big Data resulting from the ongoing advancements in RS hardware, employing centralized learning through cloud computing emerges as a logical and convenient solution. Nevertheless, this approach overlooks the influence of the isolation and heterogeneity of RS data on the reliability of change detection outcomes. In contrast, federated learning (FL) enables collaborative change detection on nonindependent identical distributed RS data without the need to transfer the original data. Simultaneously, it is important to acknowledge that the dependency of FL on the central node may pose potential data security risks. To address this issue, this article proposes a decentralized FL generative adversarial network (GAN) network. This ensures that raw data remains stationary during participation in unsupervised learning. In addition, the network employs edge devices to implement FL, allowing adaptation to diverse devices in practical scenarios. Lastly, blockchain is integrated into a decentralized architecture for the dynamic selection of leader nodes, effectively enhancing the robustness and security of the framework. Decentralized federated generative adversarial network (DFGAN) is a novel approach for cooperative privacy preservation introduced into hyperspectral change detection systems. The method outperforms most of existing methods on three datasets, achieving more than 90% detection accuracy on all of them. In addition, by simulating in a real on-orbit environment using a satellite constellation simulator on a Jeston TX2, FedGAN demonstrates superior accuracy in HSI change compared to existing algorithms while significantly reducing training time by 17.3%.

Large-scale hyperspectral image (HSI) clustering remains a fundamental and challenging task due to tremendous spatial scales, abundant spectral band information, and lack of prior information. Most existing clustering methods either ignore the spectral band correlation leading to low clustering performance nor unprocessable due to the large spatial scale. To solve these difficulties, this article presents a dual smooth graph convolutional clustering (DSGCC) framework for large-scale HSI clustering. Specifically, the superpixel is introduced to decrease the spatial scale of HSI and reduce graph node number for subsequent network training. Furthermore, a smooth graph filter is presented, which extracts the smooth features and filters the high-frequency interference in graph learning. In addition, we propose a layerwise graph reconstruction mechanism, which constrains all hidden layers output by graph reconstruction loss. Finally, we introduce a self-training method that utilizes soft labels to supervise during clustering and learns the robust embedding for node clustering. DSGCC is an end-to-end network that is optimized by joint loss, which is easily trained from scratch. We assess DSGCC on five commonly used large-scale HSI datasets, and experiments denote that DSGCC achieves the optimum clustering performance, which is superior to existing HSI clustering approaches. On Salinas, Indian Pines, Pavia University, WHU-Hi-LongKou, and WHU-Hi-HongHu datasets, the clustering overall accuracy of DSGCC are 85.43%, 65.45%, 70.48%, 87.30%, and 77.34%, respectively.

Spectral indices are of fundamental importance in providing insights into the distinctive characteristics of oil spills, making them indispensable tools for effective action planning. The normalized difference oil index (NDOI) is a reliable metric and suitable for the detection of coastal oil spills, effectively leveraging the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectral bands offered by commercial sensors. The present study explores the calculation of NDOI with a primary focus on leveraging remotely sensed imagery with rich spectral data. This undertaking necessitates a robust infrastructure to handle and process large datasets, thereby demanding significant memory resources and ensuring scalability. To overcome these challenges, a novel cloud-based approach is proposed in this study to conduct the distributed implementation of the NDOI calculation. This approach offers an accessible and intuitive solution, empowering developers to harness the benefits of cloud platforms. The evaluation of the proposal is conducted by assessing its performance using the scene acquired by the airborne visible infrared imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS) sensor during the 2010 oil rig disaster in the Gulf of Mexico. The catastrophic nature of the event and the subsequent challenges underscore the importance of remote sensing (RS) in facilitating decision-making processes. In this context, cloud-based approaches have emerged as a prominent technological advancement in the RS field. The experimental results demonstrate noteworthy performance by the proposed cloud-based approach and pave the path for future research for fast decision-making applications in scalable environments.

Spectral indices are of fundamental importance in providing insights into the distinctive characteristics of oil spills, making them indispensable tools for effective action planning. The normalized difference oil index (NDOI) is a reliable metric and suitable for the detection of coastal oil spills, effectively leveraging the visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectral bands offered by commercial sensors. The present study explores the calculation of NDOI with a primary focus on leveraging remotely sensed imagery with rich spectral data. This undertaking necessitates a robust infrastructure to handle and process large datasets, thereby demanding significant memory resources and ensuring scalability. To overcome these challenges, a novel cloud-based approach is proposed in this study to conduct the distributed implementation of the NDOI calculation. This approach offers an accessible and intuitive solution, empowering developers to harness the benefits of cloud platforms. The evaluation of the proposal is conducted by assessing its performance using the scene acquired by the airborne visible infrared imaging spectrometer (AVIRIS) sensor during the 2010 oil rig disaster in the Gulf of Mexico. The catastrophic nature of the event and the subsequent challenges underscore the importance of remote sensing (RS) in facilitating decision-making processes. In this context, cloud-based approaches have emerged as a prominent technological advancement in the RS field. The experimental results demonstrate noteworthy performance by the proposed cloud-based approach and pave the path for future research for fast decision-making applications in scalable environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, some tensor-based hyperspectral anomaly detection (HAD) approaches are still insufficient in utilizing the spatial–spectral structure information of hyperspectral images (HSIs), resulting in the inability to isolate the background and abnormal targets well. In this letter, an enhanced tensor low-rank representation (ETLR) learning model is proposed for HAD. Specifically, the original 3-D HSI data is first decomposed into a structural background component, an anomaly component, and a noise component. Among them, with the help of multisubspace learning technology, the structural background component is reformulated by the t-product of the background dictionary tensor and the corresponding coefficient tensor. Then, the tensor nuclear norm (TNN) is adopted to preserve the global low-rank property of the background component in both spatial and spectral dimensions. For the abnormal component, an $\ell _{2,1,1}$ -norm is designed to enhance the group sparsity of abnormal pixels. For the noise component, a tensor $F$ -norm constraint is imposed to suppress the confusion of noise and anomalies. Meanwhile, a robust dictionary tensor that can adequately characterize the background is constructed by using tensor robust principal component analysis (TRPCA). Furthermore, to reduce the interference of redundant information on detection accuracy, the optimal clustering framework (OCF) method is utilized for band selection. Finally, extensive experiments on one simulated and three real HSI datasets confirm that our algorithm is superior to current HAD algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The accuracy of hyperspectral image (HSI) classification relies on lots of labeled training samples. However, the existing HSI data can be used for training with extremely limited labeled samples. In this letter, we propose a semisupervised HSI classification network based on pseudo-label and spatial-spectral convolution (PS3DN), which can improve classification accuracy with limited labeled samples. First, we design an asymmetric dense residual network (ARDN), which uses asymmetric convolution kernels instead of square kernels to reduce the number of parameters. Then we use the Center-Focus loss function to update the network parameters, aiming to improve the robustness of the network. Further, we generate high-confidence pseudo-labels by this network, which reduces the need for labeled samples for the classification network. Finally, we propose a joint spatial-spectral convolutional (SSCNN) classification network, the fusion of spatial-spectral separation convolution and self-learning attention mechanism, to achieve more accurate classification. We conducted experiments on four public datasets, and the experimental results show that the classification accuracy of Pavia University (UP), Salinas (SA), Kennedy Space Center (KSC), and Indian Pines (IP) datasets is 92.45%, 96.91%, 98.38%, and 90.43%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared with general optical images, hyperspectral images (HSIs) contain richer spectral information. On one hand, this provides a sufficient basis for ground object recognition. On the other hand, it results in the intermingling of spatial and spectral information. In order to make better use of the rich spatial and spectral information in HSIs, we resort to vision transformer (ViT). To be specific, we propose the cross spatial–spectral dense transformer (CS2DT) for spatial–spectral feature extracting and feature fusing. For feature extraction, CS2DT employs the adaptive dense encoder (ADE) module, which enables the extraction of multiscale semantic information. During the features fusion stage, we use the cross spatial–spectral attention (CS2A) module based on the cross-attention (CA) operation to better integrate spatial and spectral features. We evaluate the classification performance of the proposed CS2DT on three well-known datasets by conducting extensive experiments. Experimental results demonstrate that CS2DT can achieve higher accuracy and higher stability when compared with the state-of-the-art (SOTA) methods. The source code will be made available at https://github.com/shouhengx/CS2DT. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, numerous deep learning (DL)-based frameworks have been proposed for hyperspectral image classification (HSIC). Considering a large number of spectral bands of hyperspectral images (HSIs), it is still challenging to effectively utilize the spectral information and achieve accurate classification when few training samples are available. To make full use of the spectral–spatial information in HSIs with few training samples, in this letter, we propose a lightweight end-to-end attention-enhanced feature fusion network (AeF2N). The proposed AeF2N consists of four sequential stages, i.e., spectral feature augmentation, spatial contextual feature interaction, spectral feature augmentation, and classification. The first and third stages are used to capture and augment the discriminative spectral features, while the second stage is used to capture spatial information. Notably, two novel attention blocks, spectral augmentation attention (SAA) and spatial integration attention (SIA) are interactively introduced to capture significant spectral and spatial information, respectively. Based on the proposed spectral and spatial feature discrimination stages, the AeF2N effectively identifies both spectrally significant (e.g., irregular small objects) and spatially significant (e.g., specific-shaped objects) land objects with high accuracy. Experimental results obtained on three benchmark hyperspectral datasets demonstrate the superiority of the proposed approach compared with six state-of-the-art DL-based methods in terms of higher classification accuracy and efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep learning techniques have shown increasing potential in change detection (CD) in hyperspectral images (HSIs). However, most deep learning-based existing methods for HSI CD follow a patch-based local learning framework and concentrate on binary CD. In this letter, we propose an end-to-end semantic feature fused global learning (SFFGL) framework for HSI multiclass CD (MCD). In SFFGL, a global spatialwise fully convolutional network (FCN), which introduces a spatial attention mechanism (PAM) between encoder and decoder, is designed to effectively exploit the global spatial information from the whole HSIs and achieve patch-free inference. PAM can adaptively extract global spatialwise feature representation. In the model training stage, a global hierarchical (GH) sampling strategy is introduced to obtain diverse gradients during backpropagation for more robust performance. The semantic–spatial feature fusion ($\text{S}^{2}\text{F}^{2}$) unit is designed to effectively fuse the enhanced spatial context information in the encoder and the semantic information in the decoder. More importantly, a semantic feature enhancement module (SEM) is proposed to weaken the influence of the unchanged regional background on the change regional foreground, thus further improving the accuracy. Experimental results on two benchmark HSI datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed SFFGL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sparse label-oriented semantic segmentation network (SL-SSNet) is proposed for the classification of hyperspectral images (HSIs) in this letter. Since semantic segmentation network performs pixel-level classification and can extract long-range contextual information, we apply it to the task of HSI classification. To mitigate the small size sample problem, we not only design a lightweight fully convolutional network, but also explore the usefulness of unlabeled data by introducing two constraints. First, an adversarial learning-based multiclassifier consistency strategy is employed to improve the classification of unlabeled data. It constrains two different classifiers to have consistent prediction results on unlabeled data. As a result, the extracted features of unlabeled data can be more discriminative and the predictions are more reliable. Second, a manifold regularizer is applied to constrain the classification results of unlabeled data to be smooth with respect to the data manifold, which can further exploit the unlabeled data and alleviate the small size sample problem. The experimental results using multiple hyperspectral data demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At present, hyperspectral image classification (HSIC) technology based on deep learning has been widely explored. However, the time and labor costs of obtaining enough labeled samples are expensive. To obtain higher classification performance with a few number of labeled samples, a coarse-to-fine semisupervised classification learning (CFSSL) method is proposed in this letter. First of all, the CFSSL performs coarse-grained classification with a few number of labeled samples, and the breaking-ties (BTs) criterion is introduced to sample the coarse-grained classification results to ensure that the samples with high confidence are selected to generate pseudo-labels. Then, the pseudo-labels and their corresponding unlabeled samples are sent to the feature extraction network for fine-grained classification, to obtain more advanced classification results. Finally, in the fine-grained classification stage, a multiscale convolution kernel attention aggregation network ($A^{2}$ -MCKN) is designed to simultaneously extract the spatial-spectral features of the image and ensure clear texture boundaries of ground objects. The experimental results on two public datasets show that the CFSSL can obtain better accuracy than other methods with a few number of labeled samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neural networks (NNs) have gained importance in hyperspectral image (HSI) segmentation for earth observation (EO) due to their unparalleled data-driven feature extraction capability. However, in many real-life situations, ground truth is not available, and the performance of unsupervised NNs is still susceptible to enhancement. To overcome this challenge, this letter presents a new loss function to improve the performance of unsupervised HSI segmentation models. The spectral loss function, $Sl$ , which can be included in different models, is based on the purity of the unmixing endmembers and the spectral similarity of the clusters provided by the NN to determine the classes. It is incorporated into a 3-D convolutional autoencoder (AE) to validate its performance on four standard HSI benchmarks. Furthermore, its performance has been qualitatively examined in a real case study, an oil spill without ground truth. The results show that $Sl$ is a breakthrough in unsupervised HS segmentation, obtaining the best overall performance and highlighting the importance of spectral signatures. Additionally, the dimensional reduction is also vital in compacting the spectral information, which facilitates its segmentation. The source code is available at https://github.com/mhaut/HSI-3DSpLoss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep-learning-based methods have made great progress in hyperspectral target detection (HTD). Unfortunately, the insufficient utilization of spatial information in most methods leaves deep-learning-based methods to confront ineffectiveness. To ameliorate this issue, an attention-based multiscale spectral–spatial detector (AMSSD) for HTD is proposed. First, the AMSSD leverages the Siamese structure to establish a similarity discrimination network, which can enlarge intraclass similarity and interclass dissimilarity to facilitate better discrimination between the target and the background. Second, 1-D convolutional neural network (CNN) and vision Transformer (ViT) are used combinedly to extract spectral–spatial features more feasibly and adaptively. The joint use of spectral–spatial information can obtain more comprehensive features, which promotes subsequent similarity measurement. Finally, a multiscale spectral–spatial difference feature fusion module is devised to integrate spectral–spatial difference features of different scales to obtain more distinguishable representation and boost detection competence. Experiments conducted on two HSI datasets indicate that the AMSSD outperforms seven compared methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image (HSI) processing tasks frequently rely on spatial–spectral total variation (SSTV) to quantify the local smoothness of image structures. However, conventional SSTV only considers a sparse structure of gradient maps computed along the spatial and spectral dimensions while neglecting other correlations. To address this limitation, we introduce low-rank guided SSTV (LRSTV), which characterizes the sparsity and low-rank priors of the gradient map simultaneously. First, we verify through numerical tests and theoretical analyses that the gradient tensors are not only sparse but also low-rank. Subsequently, to model the low rankness of the gradient map, we use the tensor average rank to represent the low Tucker rank of gradient tensors. The convex envelope of the tensor average rank is then employed to penalize the rank on the gradient map after the Fourier transform along the spectral dimension. By naturally encoding the sparsity and low-rank priors of the gradient map, LRSTV results in a more accurate representation of the original image. Finally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of LRSTV by integrating it into the HSI processing model, replacing conventional SSTV, and testing it on two public datasets with nine cases of mixed noise and two datasets with realistic noise. The results show that LRSTV outperforms conventional SSTV in terms of accuracy and robustness.

Hyperspectral image (HSI) and multispectral image (MSI) fusion has the potential to significantly improve the quality and usefulness of data, leading to better decision-making and a more complete understanding of the observed scene. For HSI and MSI fusion, capturing matched pairs of HSI and MSI images is challenging. This hampers the pretraining of neural-network-based HSI–MSI fusion methods and yields unsatisfactory fusion results. A lightweight-attention (LA) cyclic network (Circle-Net) without pretraining using labeled data is constructed and applied to HSI–MSI fusion to alleviate this issue. Circle-Net consists of a coordinate feature fusion (CFF) network and a dual-attention decoder (DAD) network. Multiscale features collected from the DAD network are fused by the CFF network to derive a high-resolution HSI. Specifically, in the DAD network, skip connections in the encoder–decoder network are replaced by LAs, while polarized attention is used to guarantee efficient transfer of features between the encoder and decoder. In comparison with other methods, the experimental performance shows the superiority of the Circle-Net in both visual and quantitative performance.

The low rank and sparse representation (LRSR) technique has attracted increasing attention for hyperspectral anomaly detection (HAD). Although a large quantity of research based on LRSR for HAD is proposed, the detection performance is still limited, due to the unsatisfactory dictionary construction and insufficient consideration of global and local characteristics. To tackle the above-mentioned concern, a novel HAD method, termed dual collaborative constraints regularized low-rank and sparse representation via robust dictionaries construction, is proposed in this article. Concretely, a robust dictionary construction strategy, which thoroughly excavates the potential of the density estimation model and local outlier factor, is proposed to yield pure and representative dictionary atoms. To fully exploit the global and local characteristics of hyperspectral images, dual collaborative constraints corresponding to the background and anomaly components are imposed on the LRSR model. Notably, two weighted matrices are further exerted on the representation coefficients to improve the effect of collaborative constraints, considering the fact that the surrounding pixels similar to the testing pixel should be given a large weight, otherwise the weight is expected to be small. In this way, the background and anomaly components can be well modeled. Additionally, a nonlinear transformation operation, which combines the output of the density estimation model and local outlier factor with the detection result derived from the LRSR model, is developed to suppress the background. The experiments conducted on one simulated dataset and three real datasets demonstrate the superiority of the proposed method compared with the four typical methods and four state-of-the-art methods.

Sparse representation (SR)-based approaches and collaborative representation (CR)-based methods are proved to be effective to detect the anomalies in a hyperspectral image (HSI). Nevertheless, the existing methods for achieving hyperspectral anomaly detection (HAD) generally only consider one of them, failing to comprehensively exploit them to further promote the detection performance. To address the issue, a novel HAD method, which integrates both SR and CR, is proposed in this article. To be specific, an SR model, whose overcomplete dictionary is generated by means of the density-based clustering algorithm and superpixel segmentation method, is first constructed for each pixel in an HSI. Then, for each pixel in an HSI, the used atoms in SR model are sifted to form the background dictionary corresponding to the CR model. To fully exploit both SR and CR information, we further combine the residual features obtained from both SR and CR model by the nonlinear transformation function to generate the response map. Finally, to preserve contour information of the objects, a postprocessing operation with guided filter is imposed into the response map to acquire the detection result. Experiments conducted on simulated and real datasets demonstrate that the proposed SRCR outperforms the state-of-the-art methods.

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) are usually corrupted by various types of mixed noises, which degrades the qualities of acquired images and limits the subsequent applications. In this article, we propose a novel denoised method based on a hybrid spatial–spectral total variation (SSTV) regularization, which we refer to as ${l_{0}}$-${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV. Specifically, ${l_{0}}$-${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV can be treated as an integrated regularization embedding spatial–spectral ${l_{0}}$ gradient model into ${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV. ${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV regularization exploits the sparse structures in both spatial and spectral domains. Hence, the correlations within HSIs are fully considered. Due to the good performance of ${l_{1 - 2}}$-norm in image restoration, ${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV gives a tighter approximation for the gradient domains of HSIs. It can effectively avoid artifacts and oversmoothing caused by the limitation of the SSTV regularization based on ${l_{1}}$-norm (${l_{1}}$SSTV). Meanwhile, the ${l_{0}}$ gradient regularization controls the number of nonzero gradients to promote the local piecewise smoothness, making denoised images preserve clear edges. With the effective combination of ${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV and ${l_{0}}$ gradient regularization, ${l_{0}}$-${l_{1 - 2}}$SSTV produces high-quality restoration results in the denoising process: better detail preservation and sharper edges. The augmented Lagrangian method and the difference of convex algorithm are exploited to optimize the proposed model. The results for simulated and real experiments demonstrate the effectiveness and superiority of the proposed method compared with state-of-the-art methods.

Multimodally distributed data is very common in remote sensing images, such as hyperspectral images (HSIs). It is important to capture the local manifold structure while preserving the global discriminant information in the multimodal data. In this article, an adaptive local discriminant analysis and distribution matching (ALDADM) method is designed for the domain adaptation (DA) in HSI classification. ALDADM uses adaptive local discriminant analysis to extract features that are discriminative and robust to multimodally distributed data. Meanwhile, considering the spectral properties of HSI, the domain shift is reduced by distribution matching and subspace alignment. During this learning process, ALDADM only selects density peak samples to reduce the influence of interfering samples. Four DA tasks are designing using University of Pavia, Center of Pavia, Yancheng, and Botswana HSI datasets. Compared with existing DA methods, the experimental results demonstrate that our ALDADM offers a superior performance.

Fusion technology has been the core strategy to obtain a high-spatial-spectral resolution hyperspectral image (HSI). In recent years, few fusion models focused on exploiting the underlying manifold structure in the spatial dimension of the high-resolution HSI. We assume that image patches of high-resolution multispectral image (HR-MSI) and high-resolution hyperspectral image (HR-HSI) share similar manifold structures. Through this bridge, a local-nonlocal low-dimensional manifold defined from HR-MSI is built to favor the patch relationship in HR-HSI, which is further utilized to build a set of orthogonal bases. Subsequently, we introduce a truncation operation based on the adaptively constructed orthogonal bases, which can efficiently preserve the low-frequency information of the image and reduce the interference of noise. Finally, we combine the local-nonlocal manifold term and the truncation operation, coined as LNTM, into a variational super-resolution framework to regularize the latent HR-HSI, leading to a strongly convex function regarding the fusion problem. The cost function is solved by a carefully designed variant of alternating direction method of multipliers algorithm. Different experiments on three public benchmarks validate our algorithm outperforms the recent start-of-the-arts concerning both visual quality and numerical metrics.

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) have always played an important role in remote sensing applications. Anomaly detection has become a hot spot in HSI processing in recent years. The popular detecting method is to accurately segment anomalies from the background. Informative bands are very important for the accuracy improvement of the detection technology. However, most of the abnormal targets segmentation methods focus on the usage of all the spectral features, thus are easily affected by redundant bands or feature noise. A hyperspectral anomaly detection algorithm based on subfeature ensemble is proposed in this article. The proposed method consists of the following steps. First, the bands of the original HSI are normalized and randomly divided into several subfeature sets according to different proportions. Second, six methods including the prior-based tensor approximation algorithm (PTA), Reed–Xiaoli method, a low-rank and sparse representation method, a low-rank and sparse matrix decomposition-based Mahalanobis distance method, the graph and total variation regularized low-rank representation-based method, and a method based on tensor principal component analysis are applied to detect anomalies on the original HSI, and the method with the best performance is used to obtain an enhanced feature set. Then, the enhanced features and the subfeatures are ensembled iteratively to construct a new dataset. Finally, the PTA method is operated on the dataset with ensemble features to get the final abnormal target results. Six hyperspectral datasets are used in the experiment. Seven methods are employed as comparisons. The results are analyzed from both qualitative and quantitative perspectives. Extensive experimental results illustrate that the proposed method performs best on all datasets.

Hyperspectral anomaly detection is a widely used technique for exploring target of interest in hyperspectral images (HSIs). In recent years, the low-rank and sparse-decomposition-based anomaly detection model has attracted extensive attention. However, these models suffer from two main problems. First, it is difficult for them to completely separate the low-rank background and the sparse anomaly. Moreover, the extracted sparse component is inevitably contaminated by noise. Second, the incorporation of various constraints increases the cost of selecting the optimal parameters. To solve the two key problems, we propose a self-adaptive low-rank and sparse decomposition (SLaSD) method for hyperspectral anomaly detection in this article. The proposed method decomposes the sparse (anomaly) part of the HSI through a novel self-adaptive alternating direction method (S-ADM). The noise of the sparse part is suppressed through a dual strategy of integrating guided filter and the difference between the S-ADM-derived sparse features of pixels. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated by comparing with ten state-of-the-art methods using six real HSIs. It is shown that the proposed SLaSD method can produce more accurate detection results than the ten benchmark methods.

Hyperspectral imaging technology has been popularly applied in remote sensing because it collects echoed signals from across the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum and thereby contributes fruitfully spatial-spectral information. However, the processing or storage of high-data-volume hyperspectral images (HSIs), also viewed as snapshots varying with the EM spectrum, burdens the hardware resources, especially for the high spectral resolution and spatial resolution cases. To address this challenge, a novel unsupervised dimensionality reduction method based on the dynamic mode decomposition (DMD) algorithm is proposed to analyze hyperspectral data. This method decomposes the spatial-spectral HSIs in terms of spatial dynamic modes and corresponding spectral patterns. Then, these spatial-spectral patterns are combined to reconstruct the raw HSIs via a low-rank model. Furthermore, we extend the proposed DMD method to hyperspectral data in the tensor form and title it CubeDMD to actualize the compression of HSIs in horizontal, vertical, and spectral dimensions. Our proposed data-driven scheme is benchmarked by the real hyperspectral data measured at the Salinas scenes and Pavia University. It is demonstrated that the HSIs can be reconstructed accurately and effectively by the proposed low-rank model. The mean peak signal-to-noise ratio between the reconstructed and original HSIs can reach 31.47 dB, and the corresponding mean spectral angle mapper is only 0.1037. Our work provides a useful tool for the analysis of HSIs with a low-rank representation.

The very high spectral resolution in hyperspectral images (HSIs) offers an opportunity to detect subtle land-cover changes. However, the availability of HSIs acquired from different platforms requires the development of change detection (CD) methods capable of processing HSIs with different spatial resolutions. In this article, we propose a general end-to-end subpixel convolution-based residual network (SPCNet) to accomplish the CD task between high spatial resolution (HR) and low spatial resolution (LR) HSIs. To effectively tackle the resolution matching issue, a super-resolution (SR) block with an efficient subpixel convolution layer is introduced to upscale the LR feature maps into HR maps. The subpixel convolution layer can fully explore the subpixel context information by learning an array of upscaling filters. Moreover, the designed SPC module is embedded into the LR branch to generate more discriminative representations. More importantly, the SPC module as a plug-and-play unit has the potential to be embedded into other baseline networks to enhance the feature learning capability. Experimental results on four HSI datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed SPCNet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sparse unmixing (SU) algorithms use the existing spectral library as prior knowledge to analyze the endmembers and estimate abundance maps. The majority of SU algorithms use loss functions based on the $L_{2,1}$ -norm or $F$ -norm to minimize reconstruction error. They have different advantages and shortcomings. In short, $F$ -norm has a differentiable characteristic, and it is easy to minimize as a loss function. However, it is very sensitive to heavy noise and outliers. While the $L_{2,1}$ -norm emphasizes the reconstruction error on each band and is robust to noise with different intensities in different bands. But the $L_{2,1}$ -norm is nondifferentiable at zero-point. This article introduces an adaptive loss function based on the $\sigma $ -norm for SU, which combines the advantages of the $L_{2,1}$ -norm and $F$ -norm. The adaptive loss function is related to a nonnegative parameter $\sigma $. By adjusting the parameter $\sigma $ , the adaptive loss function can approach the $F$ -norm or $L_{2,1}$ -norm. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first time to apply an adaptive loss function to SU. Moreover, the adaptive loss function is globally differentiable, and we propose an optimization algorithm for the adaptive loss function and verify its convergence. Experiments on real-world and synthetic HSIs show that the adaptive loss function effectively enhances the performance of the SU algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep learning-based methods (e.g., convolutional neural network (CNN)-based methods) have shown increasing potential in hyperspectral image (HSI) change detection (CD). However, the recent advances in CNN-based methods in HSI CD tasks are mostly devoted to designing more complex architectures or adding additional hand-designed blocks. This increases the number of parameters making model training difficult. In this article, we propose an end-to-end residual self-calibrated network (RSCNet) to increase the accuracy of HSI CD. To fully exploit the spatial information, the proposed RSCNet method adaptively builds interspatial and interspectral dependencies around each spatial location with fewer extra parameters and reduced complexity. Moreover, the introduced self-calibrated convolution (SCConv) helps to generate more discriminative representations by heterogeneously exploiting convolutional filters nested in the convolutional layer. The designed RSC module can explicitly incorporate richer information by introducing response calibration operation. The experiments on four bitemporal HSI datasets demonstrated that the proposed RSCNet method is more accurate than ten widely used benchmark methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Band selection can reduce information redundancy and improve application efficiency of hyperspectral images (HSIs), such as classification. Traditional band selection methods usually weight different objectives and combine them together in a single function, making it difficult to balance conflict between various criteria. Recently, multiobjective optimization band selection (MOBS) techniques have got a lot of attention, which evaluate bands from different aspects separately and search for a solution well-balancing all the objectives simultaneously. However, few algorithms are focused on target detection, and most of them use just two objectives, which are not sufficient enough to select optimal band subset for detection. To alleviate these problems, this article proposes an algorithm named target-oriented multiobjective optimization of band selection (TOMOBS). First, the multiobjective optimization (MO) framework with three objective functions is modeled, involving information, noise, and correlation of the bands, respectively. Second, to optimize the proposed model, the noninferior solution advantage matrix (NAM) is designed based on the swarm intelligence optimization method, which can provide accurate solutions and improve the descriptiveness of MO problems (MOPs). Third, a target-oriented evaluation mechanism is developed to guide selecting final result from the Pareto front (PF), especially designed for target detection. Experiments on real hyperspectral datasets show that this algorithm can provide a subset of bands with strong representational capability for target detection and achieve impressing results compared with the state-of-the-art methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Change detection (CD) with hyperspectral images (HSIs) can be effectively performed using deep learning networks (DLNs) by taking advantage of HSIs for their abundant spectral and spatial information and the excellent performance of DLN in machine learning. By modeling the temporal dependence of multiscale representative features, more discriminative information reflecting land use and land cover (LULC) changes can be obtained by suppressing less correlated information while improving the robustness of pseudo-changes caused by imaging noises. However, preserving time-dependent multiscale representative features while extracting spatial–spectral features based on conventional DLN is difficult, mainly due to the structural limitation of conventional DLN. A multipath convolutional long short-term memory (LSTM) multipath convolutional long short-term memory neural network (MP-ConvLSTM) taking advantage of LSTM and convolutional neural network (CNN) through the designed parallel architecture to learn multilevel temporal dependencies of bitemporal HSIs, therefore, was proposed for extracting multiscale temporal–spatial–spectral features by combining hidden states from different paths of ConvLSTM in the present study. In the proposed MP-ConvLSTM, the efficient channel attention (ECA) module was introduced to refine features of different paths, and Siamese CNN was adopted to reduce HSIs’ dimensionality and extract preliminary features to build up an end-to-end trainable model for CD with HSIs. The validity of the MP-ConvLSTM was evaluated using the binary and multiclass CD datasets. The CD accuracy of the proposed MP-ConvLSTM was visually and statistically evaluated by different criteria and compared with those derived from several state-of-the-art (SOTA) CD algorithms. The experiments demonstrated that our proposed model not only outperformed those SOTA CD models but also exhibited better tradeoff between complexity and accuracy in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spectral unmixing expresses the mixed pixels existing in hyperspectral images as the product of endmembers and their corresponding fractional abundances, which has been widely used in hyperspectral imagery analysis. However, the endmember spectra even for pixels from the same material of an image may include variability due to the influence of lighting conditions and inherent properties of materials within different pixels. Though the in situ spectral library has been used to accommodate such variability by using multiple in situ spectra to represent each kind of material, the performance improvement may be restricted due to the limited number of endmembers for each material. Therefore, in this article, spectral variability is directly extracted from an in situ endmember library and considered to be transferable among different endmembers for the first time. Furthermore, such a spectral variability is further used to augment sparse unmixing by synchronously performing endmember-based reconstruction and spectral variability-augmented reconstruction in the sparse unmixing model. By, respectively, imposing sparse and smoothness regularization over abundances and variability coefficients, a convex optimization-based spectral variability augmented sparse unmixing (SVASU) is finally proposed, and its convergence performance is also analyzed. Experiments conducted over synthetic and real-world datasets demonstrate that the proposed SVASU method not only significantly improves the unmixing performance of conventional spectral library-based unmixing but also outperforms several state-of-the-art sparse unmixing algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, deep-learning-based feature extraction (FE) methods have shown great potential in hyperspectral image (HSI) processing. Unfortunately, it also brings a challenge that the training of the deep learning networks always requires large amounts of labeled samples, which is hardly available for HSI data. To address this issue, in this article, a novel unsupervised deep-learning-based FE method is proposed, which is trained in an end-to-end style. The proposed framework consists of an encoder subnetwork and a decoder subnetwork. The structure of the two subnetworks is symmetric for obtaining better downsampling and upsampling representation. Considering both spectral and spatial information, 3-D all convolution nets and deconvolution nets are used to structure the encoder subnetwork and decoder subnetwork, respectively. However, 3-D convolution and deconvolution kernels bring more parameters, which can deteriorate the quality of the obtained features. To alleviate this problem, a novel cost function with a sparse regular term is designed to obtain more robust feature representation. Experimental results on publicly available datasets indicate that the proposed method can obtain robust and effective features for subsequent classification tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) contain rich spectral signatures that reveal more image details and, thus, enable the detection of less noticeable changes on the ground. However, HSI-based change detection (CD) is susceptible to a large amount of irrelevant or noisy spectral and spatial information due to massive spectral bands. To address these issues, we propose a novel spectral and spatial attention network (S2AN) for HSI-based CD, which is capable to suppress CD-irrelevant spectral and spatial information via adaptive spectral and spatial attention mechanisms. S2AN takes as input the image patch from the difference map between two HSIs and outputs the status of change for the patch. Specifically, S2AN is composed of several repeated attention blocks, each of which contains the spectral attention (SpeA) module for directly calculating the attention score for each input channel, the Gaussian spatial attention (GSpaA) module that first constructs an adaptive Gaussian distribution and then samples it to derive the attention scores for each spatial position, and the convolutional feature extraction (CFE) module for extracting features from the attention-weighted input. It is worth mentioning that, in addition to the advantage of the attention, GSpaA also reduces the sensitivity of patch size for patch-based methods. To effectively train S2AN when facing insufficient labeled data, a semisupervised strategy that combines supervised and unsupervised methods to augment labeled training data is proposed. Experiments on several HSI datasets in comparison to existing methods show the superiority of S2AN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Remote sensing images, especially hyperspectral images (HSIs), are extremely vulnerable to random noise and stripe noise. As a key aspect of HSI data quality improvement, stripe noise removal has always been a pervasive issue in remote sensing image processing. Convolutional neural networks have been applied for HSI data destriping. However, the existing methods lose the stripe-free component of the original image to a certain extent. These models also ignore the global spatial context of images and the correlation between spatial information and spectral information. Therefore, we propose a novel destriping convolutional network to overcome the problems with the existing methods. Octave convolution is used to extract cross-frequency features, and separate and compress the low-frequency information of the images, while dilation convolution (Dila-Conv) is used to reduce the amount of required calculation and also preserve the key image information. In addition, Dila-Conv can expand the receptive field to obtain multiscale features. Finally, a cross-channel enhanced spatial–spectral feature fusion module is used to acquire and integrate spatial context information and interchannel dependencies on a global scale as auxiliary information so that the network model can learn and pay attention to key feature information, specifically, “what to look for” and “where to look at,” which can facilitate the distinction between stripe and stripe-free components. Experimental results obtained using multiple datasets demonstrated that the proposed method can outperform the existing comparable methods and can produce satisfactory results in terms of visual effects and quantitative evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image (HSI) denoising is a crucial preprocessing task to improve the performance of the subsequent HSI interpretation and applications. With recent progress in deep learning, HSI denoising methods based on deep neural networks have attracted increasing interest and achieved the state-of-the-art performance. Nevertheless, most of these methods are based on network structures originally developed for grayscale and color images and require a change of network structure to be applicable to HSIs. The new network architectures often lead to complicated models and limited flexibility, which, in turn, result in difficulty in learning and demand of a large number of training samples. In this article, we propose an innovative two-stage learning method including pretraining and fine-tuning procedures. In the first stage, a denoising convolutional neural network can be pretrained with pairs of corrupted and clean images. In the second stage, the pretrained network is fine-tuned via a self-supervised learning strategy to capture the spectral correlation in HSIs. The training pairs in the second stage are constructed from the neighboring band images in the target noisy HSI, leading to a novel idea of embedding spectral information into denoiser through the target image, rather than the change of the network architecture. This model has strong adaptability such that many image denoising networks can be easily adopted for HSIs, while the external hyperspectral training set is optional but not mandatory. Experimental results show that our method has competitive performance compared with the state-of-the-art approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral image (HSI) change detection aims to identify the differences in multitemporal HSIs. Recently, a graph convolutional network (GCN) has attracted increasing attention in the field of remote sensing due to its advantages in processing irregular data. In comparison with a convolutional neural network (CNN) that can only perform convolution operations on data with the assumption of the Euclidean structure, GCN adopts a graph structure to flexibly capture the characteristics and structure information of non-Euclidean data. In this article, we propose a novel dual-branch difference amplification GCN (D2AGCN) for HSI change detection with limited samples, which allows the network to fully extract and effectively amplify the difference features of multitemporal HSIs for change detection. The dual-branch structure can effectively extract sufficient different features to facilitate the detection of the changed areas. As far as we know, this is the first time that GCN has been introduced into HSI change detection. A difference magnification module is designed to suppress similar regions and highlight the feature differences between the multitemporal HSIs in the dual-branch structure, which increases the distinction between change and nonchange classes. The visual and quantitative experimental results on three real hyperspectral datasets (i.e., China, Bay Area, and Santa Barbara) show that the proposed D2AGCN outperforms most of the state-of-the-art methods in HSI change detection with limited training samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the presence of multiple scatterings, linear unmixing methods may not perform well in practical applications, and thus nonlinear unmixing has become an urgent problem to be solved. Usually, the mixing process in the observed scenarios is physically based, and many well-designed models have been proposed to interpret it. Recently, kernel-based nonlinear unmixing methods have been popularly studied to achieve a model-free and flexible representation of the nonlinearity. However, the existing kernel-based methods are mainly data-driven, which could make them fail to match the real physical mixing mechanism and result in the occurrence of overfitting. In this article, a kernel-based bilinear unmixing (KBU) method was proposed to transform the classic bilinear mixing models into their equivalent kernel forms that are more general and effective in expressing second-order scatterings. Two specific types of kernel transformations were designed, and the alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) was used to solve the kernel-transformed model-based optimization problem for unmixing. Moreover, the spatial prior was exploited to further improve the unmixing accuracy, and here we employ the total variation (TV) regularization as a paradigm. Experiments on synthetic data sets, physics-based simulated data sets, and real data were conducted to evaluate the algorithms. It is validated that our methods have better performance in abundance estimation and nonlinear reconstruction compared with other nonlinear unmixing methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the successful applications of unsupervised sparse dimensionality reduction (USDR) in pattern recognition, the USDR still suffers from two challenges for hyperspectral images (HSIs), which limit its discriminative performance: first, it cannot be applied for dimensionality reduction using both training samples and testing samples; second, it lacks the ability to integrate the spectral with spatial information for improving the discriminative performance of HSIs. In order to tackle the first challenge, we extend it to a supervised scenario, which can be applied for both training samples and testing samples, namely dimensionality reduction sparse representation (DRSR). Then, we propose a novel method called local and global DRSR (LGDRSR) to integrate the spectral information and spatial information of HSIs to further improve the discriminative performance of HSIs. The proposed LGDRSR computes the distance information between pixels of HSIs including the whole samples and their corresponding locations with a unified metric matrix. Experimental results show the proposed LGDRSR outperforms other state-of-the-art algorithms significantly.

With the development of sensor technology, fusion of multiple remote sensors has aroused wide attention in the earth observation area. In this article, we propose to integrate the complementary information of hyperspectral image (HSI) and infrared image (IFI) based on mathematical morphological methods. HSI contains rich spectral information and spatial information, but the operation methods using only hyperspectral data are still subject to many restrictions. IFI can capture infrared rays radiated in the object, but it has no advantage in dealing with complex terrain classification. HSI and IFI can acquire different information of objects, and the information between these two kinds of data has great complementarity. In order to make full use of the information provided by HSI and IFI, this article proposes an HSI and IFI collaborative classification framework based on a Threshold-based Local Contain Profile (TLCP), where TLCP is our new design for suppressing interferes within spatial extractions. Specifically, the spatial information of HSI and IFI is extracted by TLCP, and then, these features are integrated and fed into the support vector machine for object classification. Experimentally, we compare the proposed method with the existing LCP and EP and evaluate the collaborative framework using GF5 satellite data collected over Hebei Province in China. Final results demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed method.

Hyperspectral images (HSIs) showing objects belonging to several distinct target classes are characterized by dozens of spectral bands being available. However, some of these spectral bands are redundant and/or noisy, and hence, selecting highly informative and trustworthy bands for each class is a vital step for classification and for saving internal storage space; then the selected bands are termed a highly informative spectral band subset. We use a mutual information (MI)-based method to select the spectral band subset of a given class and two additional binary quantum classifiers, namely a quantum boost (Qboost) and a quantum boost plus (Qboost-Plus) classifier, to classify a two-label dataset characterized by the selected band subset. We pose both our MI-based band subset selection problem and the binary quantum classifiers as a quadratic unconstrained binary optimization (QUBO) problem. Such a quadratic problem is solvable with the help of conventional optimization techniques. However, the QUBO problem is an NP-hard global optimization problem, and hence, it is worthwhile for applying a quantum annealer. Thus, we adapted our MI-based optimization problem for selecting highly informative bands for each class of a given HSI to be run on a D-Wave quantum annealer. After the selection of these highly informative bands for each class, we employ our binary quantum classifiers to a two-label dataset on the D-Wave quantum annealer. In addition, we provide a novel multilabel classifier exploiting an error-encoding output code when using our binary quantum classifiers. As a real-world dataset in Earth observation, we used the well-known AVIRIS HSI of Indian Pine, north-western Indiana, USA. We can demonstrate that the MI-based band subset selection problem can be run on a D-Wave quantum annealer that selects the highly informative spectral band subset for each target class in the Indian Pine HSI. We can also prove that our binary quantum classifiers and our novel multilabel classifier generate a correct two- and multilabel dataset characterized by their selected bands and with high accuracy such as having been produced by conventional classifiers—and even better in some instances.

Recently, many spectral-special classification models have emerged one after another in the remote sensing community. These models aim to introduce the spatial information of the pixel to improve the accuracy of the class attribute of the pixel. However, for the spectral-spatial classification algorithms, not all pixels need to introduce the corresponding spatial information since the use of a large amount of spatial information has a costly time. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a robust dual-stage spatial embedding (RDSSE) model for spectral-spatial classification of hyperspectral image, which is composed of the following several main steps: First, an over-segmentation algorithm is employed to cluster original hyperspectral image into many superpixel blocks with shape adaptive characteristics. Then, we design a $k$ -peak criterion to fuse the spectral feature of pixels within and between superpixels. Next, a low time-consumption spectral classifier is introduced to conduct primary classification for a testing pixel to achieve the corresponding probability distribution. Specifically, the difference between the probability of the largest class and that of the second-largest class is served as class confidence. Finally, the predicted label of the low-confidence testing pixels is reclassified based on a high-accuracy spectral-spatial classification method. Experimental results on several real images illustrated that the proposed RDSSE method can obtain superior performance with respect to several competitive methods.

To reconstruct images with high spatial resolution and high spectral resolution, one of the most common methods is to fuse a low-resolution hyperspectral image (HSI) with a high-resolution (HR) multispectral image (MSI) of the same scene. Deep learning has been widely applied in the field of HSI-MSI fusion, which is limited with hardware. In order to break the limits, we construct an unsupervised multiattention-guided network named UMAG-Net without training data to better accomplish HSI-MSI fusion. UMAG-Net first extracts deep multiscale features of MSI by using a multiattention encoding network. Then, a loss function containing a pair of HSI and MSI is used to iteratively update parameters of UMAG-Net and learn prior knowledge of the fused image. Finally, a multiscale feature-guided network is constructed to generate an HR-HSI. The experimental results show the visual and quantitative superiority of the proposed method compared to other methods.

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have become quite popular for solving many different tasks in remote sensing data processing. The convolution is a linear operation, which extracts features from the input data. However, nonlinear operations are able to better characterize the internal relationships and hidden patterns within complex remote sensing data, such as hyperspectral images (HSIs). Morphological operations are powerful nonlinear transformations for feature extraction that preserve the essential characteristics of the image, such as borders, shape, and structural information. In this article, a new end-to-end morphological deep learning framework (called MorphConvHyperNet) is introduced. The proposed approach efficiently models nonlinear information during the training process of HSI classification. Specifically, our method includes spectral and spatial morphological blocks to extract relevant features from the HSI input data. These morphological blocks consist of two basic 2-D morphological operators (erosion and dilation) in the respective layers, followed by a weighted combination of the feature maps. Both layers can successfully encode the nonlinear information related to shape and size, playing an important role in classification performance. Our experimental results, obtained on five widely used HSIs, reveal that our newly proposed MorphConvHyperNet offers comparable (and even superior) performance when compared to traditional 2-D and 3-D CNNs for HSI classification.

Change detection is a popular topic in remote sensing that is generally constrained to two remote sensing images captured at two different times. However, the optimal type of remote sensing image for change detection tasks has not yet been determined. The use of only hyperspectral images (HSIs) with low spatial resolution or multispectral images (MSIs) with low spectral resolution cannot obtain satisfactory change detection results. In this article, we propose the fusion of simultaneously captured low spatial resolution HSIs and low spectral resolution MSIs with the use of a tensor regression-based method to detect change regions from the fused images at two different time points. In this method, nonlocal couple tensor CP decomposition is initially applied to fuse the HSIs and MSIs. A difference image is then obtained by subtracting the fused images at two different time points. Thereafter, the tensors are extracted from the difference image and the tensor regression-based method is used to classify the difference image and detect the final change results. Experimental results from three real datasets suggest that the proposed method substantially outperforms the existing state-of-the-art change detection methods as well as any change detection methods using single-source images.

The combination of spectral and 3-D elevation information provided by hyperspectral images (HSIs) and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) has gained increased attention in the remote sensing field and enabled numerous applications. While various methods have been proposed to fuse these two data streams in pixel, feature, or decision level, a deeper view into the intrinsic relation of surface geometry, material reflectance, and environment illumination is still lacking. In this article, we present a novel supervoxel-based joint intrinsic decomposition framework for HSIs and LiDAR. First, we proposed a novel intrinsic scene model for HSIs and LiDAR point cloud, which tells how we can map LiDAR point cloud into HSI pixels with point-cloud-level normals, reflectance, and incident light direction. Then, we extract supervoxels from the LiDAR point cloud using a graph-based supervoxel method. Finally, we formulate the intrinsic decomposition problem within a supervoxel-based framework which can be optimized effectively and efficiently. The outputs of the proposed model are intrinsic scene properties like incident light direction and point-cloud-level hyperspectral reflectance, with which we can then generate intrinsic hyperspectral point cloud (IHSPC) where each point possesses not only 3-D coordinates and normals but also the reflectance over each wavelength. The performance of our approach is demonstrated with both synthetic and real data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]