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The Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP) is the largest loess deposit on Earth with expansive surface-exposed source rocks of varying origins, ages, and history. Here, we present abundances of elements on representative loess and palaeosol samples from seven classic sections of the CLP. Most elements, including soluble elements (e.g. Rb and Cs), show significant correlations with La or Al2O3. These correlations indicate that these elements are hosted or absorbed in particle minerals during weathering, transport, and deposition (e.g. mica, K-feldspar, and clay minerals). These new observations allow the use of La/X (‘X’ being the element of interest) and the estimated La abundance of 31 ppm in the model upper continental crust (UCC) to estimate the abundances of other elements. The results show higher Cs (Cs = 6.7 ± 1.2 ppm), lower transition metals, Ba, and Ga. Given the high CaO and presence of carbonate in UCC rocks of both vast western China (the primary source for the CLP) and eastern China, we propose that these updates on the element abundances represent a refined model for the carbonate-bearing UCC.

The geological evolution of the Proto-Tethys Ocean remains vague. The Tianshuihai Terrane (TSHT), a subterrane of the West Kunlun, distributed to the south of the Proto-Tethys Ocean during the Earl...

The late Cambrian tonalite-trondhjemite association in the eastern segment of North Qilian suture zone (E. NQSZ) is important for understanding of the sub-arc magmatic process and tectonic evolutio...

Hyperspectralimages (HSIs) can provide powerful spectral discriminative information for the land-covers, thus is widely used in classification and target detection. However, HSIs always suffer from...

Compressed sensing provides the possibility of efficient compression of massive hyperspectral data. However, the existing methods often use the organization pattern of image blocks in sparse repres...

Granitoids in active continental margins are probes of sub-arc magmatic processes and are crucial for the understanding of crust–mantle interaction during subduction. Here we report data for the mi...

The rifting of oceanic plateaus is an important mechanism for initiating lithospheric break-up and subsequent seafloor spreading. In this study, we present the latest multichannel seismic data investigating the Caroline Ridge and provide one of the typical cases for initial oceanic plateau evolution. We reveal that a smooth basement reflector (R2), as the top of the lava flows, is subparallel to the sediments with horizontal seismic reflections over the surface of the Caroline Ridge. Thick layer-parallel lava flows beneath the R2 appear within the crust. Large seamounts in the Sorol Trough possess abundant saucer-shaped intracrustal reflectors, and the overlying sediments were destroyed by intrusive bodies. The overlying sedimentary sequences, basement, and thick lava flows on the Caroline Ridge flanks were faulted by opposing normal fault sets, and the eruptions of the seamounts deformed the strata. A widespread bright horizontal reflector (R1), as an unconformity inside the Caroline Ridge sediments, truncates the lower tilted sediment layers and is itself cut by normal faults in the flank strata. Furthermore, we propose that subaerial lava flows extended laterally from the hotspot magmatism localizing in the Sorol Trough and led to Caroline Ridge formation. The initial rifting of the Caroline Ridge occurred during the Early-Middle Miocene. Limited volcanoes concentrate only in the Sorol Trough due to the attenuated thermal effect. It is suggested that dome uplifting and far-field force could have jointly caused initial rifting process of the Caroline Ridge.

Mesozoic A-type granites are widely distributed in the Lower Yangtze River Belt (LYRB) in China, but their petrogenesis and geodynamic settings are unresolved. Here, we describe geochronological an...

South China is famous for its poly-metal deposits, with more than 50% of global W and Sb reserves, 20% of global Sn reserves, as well as abundant Cu-Mo-Pb-Zn-Au-Ag, Ta, Nb, REE and U deposits. This...

A new approach in polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) speckle filtering is proposed in this article. The proposed method preserves both point targets and dominant scattering mechanisms. The point targets are detected based on the span image, and they are then neither filtered nor involved in the other pixels’ filtering. To achieve the protection of the dominant scattering mechanism of each pixel, only pixels of the same dominant scattering mechanism as the centre pixel are included in the selection of the homogeneous pixels. Both point targets not being filtered and fact that only pixels of the same dominant scattering mechanism are included in the selection of the homogeneous pixels, which greatly improves the filtering efficiency. A likelihood-ratio test statistic based on the PolSAR covariance matrices is applied to determine the homogeneous pixels. Finally, the speckle filtering is processed using the weighted minimum mean square error estimator on the homogeneous pixels. We demonst...

Both Pacific and Neo-Tethys plates had major influences on the Cretaceous magmatisms in southeastern China. The subduction of the Neo-Tethys plate is, however, not well studied. This paper reports ...

Early Cretaceous adakite or adakitic plutons are widely distributed in central eastern China, e.g. lower Yangtze river belt (LYRB), the south Tan–Lu fault (STLF), and the Dabie orogen. Their genesi...

Large-scale Cu–Au mineralization is associated with Late Mesozoic intrusive rocks in the Tongling region of eastern China, which mainly comprise pyroxene monzodiorite, quartz monzodiorite, and gran...

The early tectonic evolution of the Lhasa Terrane remains poorly understood, although evidence for a substantial prehistory has been reported recently. We have carried out in situ zircon U–Pb dating and Hf–O isotopes of late Early Cretaceous monzogranites and get a surprising package of inherited zircons, not only because of their age profile, but also because the oldest Palaeoarchaean zircons are euhedral. The discovery of Palaeoarchaean euhedral zircons in the region suggests the presence of extremely old rocks in Tibet. Zircons from the Nagqu monzogranite yield five age peaks at ~3.45 Ga, ~2.56 Ga, ~1.76 Ga, ~900 Ma, and ~111 Ma. They have large variations in eHf(t) values (−45.1–9.2) and old Hf model ages (924–3935 Ma), with variable δ18O values of −5.80–9.64. Palaeoarchaean zircons (~3.20–3.45 Ga) are euhedral with magmatic zircon characteristics. One of the grains has negative eHf(t) value (−4.8), old Hf model age (3935 Ma), and high positive δ18O value (7.27), which suggests an ancient crus...

The Anqing region in Lower Yangtze River metallogenic belt is one of the important Cu polymetal producers in China. The origin of Cu polymetallic deposits in the region is closely related to Early ...

Late Mesozoic granitoids are widely distributed in southern Anhui Province, southeastern China, which also contains significant W–Mo–Cu mineralization. This study presents new geochronological and ...

A series of deep learning algorithms have recently shown excellent performances in many different fields. Deep models are usually generated by stacking similar modules, e.g., restricted Boltzmann machines (RBMs), and they are especially suitable for discriminating complex objects through the use of ‘big data’. However, object-oriented classification (OOC) for polarimetric synthetic aperture radar (PolSAR) imagery is based on homogeneous regions instead of pixels, which results in a degraded performance for the deep models, as the data volume is inadequate. To solve this problem, we adopt an RBM as the module, and use it to construct an adaptive boosting (AdaBoost) model instead of a stacked deep model, to carry out OOC for PolSAR imagery. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed model is superior to the stacked RBM model and the other common methods for OOC.

Numerous Triassic granitoids in the Qinling orogenic belt related to the Late Triassic collision between the North China Craton (NCC) and the Yangtze Block (YB) are important for determining the crustal composition at depth and the geodynamic processes by which the orogen formed. Most of the Triassic plutons in the Qinling orogen were emplaced between 205 and 225 Ma. The granitoid rocks from the southern margin of the NCC, North Qinling, South Qinling, and the northern margin of the YB that were emplaced during this interval have two-stage Hf model ages of 0.60–2.52 Ga (average 2.19 Ga), 0.90–2.66 Ga (average 1.29 Ga), 0.41–3.04 Ga (average 1.48 Ga), and 1.00–1.84 Ga (average 1.34 Ga), respectively, and mean eHf(t) values of −14.5, −0.32, −1.36, and −3.98, respectively. The Hf isotope compositions of the granitoids in different tectonic units differ significantly, mirroring the diverse history of crustal growth of the four units.The temporal and spatial distribution and Hf isotope compositions of the gran...

Sulfide ores with varied concentrations, including four ore reference materials (zinc, copper, and iron sulfides) and two copper-nickel and iron sulfide samples, were used to develop an improved method for their analysis by X-ray fluorescence. The optimum conditions were established for the fusion of homogeneous stable glass disks. Different weights of silica were added to the samples, which were then fused with a lithium borate flux. The amount of silica varied from 1:20 for samples with low sulfur concentrations to 1:5 for those with high concentrations. The weight ratio of sample (including silica) to lithium tetraborate was 1:14. Lithium nitrate was used as a pre-oxidizing reagent to prevent degradation of platinum–gold crucibles. After pre-oxidation at 580°C for 13 minutes, the temperature was increased to 1100°C for 12 minutes. The relative standard deviations for major and trace elements were generally better than 5% and 10%, respectively.

Mesozoic granitic intrusions are abundant in the South China Block (SCB). Understanding the generation of these granitic intrusions is important to better constrain tectonic regimes and mineralization processes. We studied the Weishan pluton, one of the largest Mesozoic composite granitic complexes in Hunan Province, to probe the relationship between multiple magma processes and tectonic events induced by plate interactions. The samples can be classified into three groups. Group 1 is highly fractionated and weakly peralumious, with flatter REE patterns and more negative Eu, Ba, Sr, P, and Ti anomalies compared with other groups. Group 2 is peralumnious-metaluminous while Group 3 is peraluminous, but with higher MgO, FeO, eNd(t), and lower initial 87Sr/86Sr in Group 2 than in Group 3. Whole-rock and biotite compositions from all groups define a good linear trend, with Group 1 and Group 2 samples defining two mixing end-members. Single-grain mica Rb-Sr isochron and LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages show that Group...

Shapinggou porphyry Mo deposit is the largest Climax-type Mo deposit in China and probably also in the world, with total proven Mo reserves of over 2.2 million tonnes at an average grade of 0.17%. It is located in the western Dabie Mountains, along the eastern extension of the East Qinling Mo mineralization belt. Similar to the majority of Mo deposits in the Qinling Mo belt, it is located north of the Triassic suture between the north and south China blocks. The orebody is mainly hosted in Cretaceous high-K granitic porphyry and explosive breccia, with potassic, silicification, and sericite-pyrite alterations. Fluorite is common in Shapinggou, indicating high-F content. The porphyry is closely associated with a large quartz syenite intrusion. Re–Os dating of molybdenite yielded an isochron age of 111.1 ± 1.2 Ma for the mineralization. Zircon U–Pb ages are 111.7 ± 0.8 Ma and 111.9 ± 0.6 Ma for the granitic porphyry and quartz syenite, respectively. Shapinggou is similar to the well-known Climax and Hender...

Orogenic gold (Au) deposits are the most important type, accounting for more than half of the world's proven Au reserves. They are mainly controlled by three key factors: (1) abundant andesitic rocks (SiO2 of 55–60 wt.%) at depth, which have systematically higher Au contents than other rock types; (2) a pervasive transition from greenschist facies to amphibolite facies metamorphism within a short period, which releases S2−-rich fluids that may scavenge Au from host rocks; and (3) deformation and fracturing under a compressive/transpressive tectonic regime. Orogenic belts at convergent margins are the best places for such mineralization because convergent margins are rich in andesites; the transition from greenschist to amphibolite facies recrystallization commonly occurs as a result of collision, compression, and thickening at convergent margins, forming large amounts of Au-rich fluids within a short period of time; and strong deformation and fracturing during orogenic processes provide channels for fluid...

The Tan–Lu fault is a well-known active fault belt in eastern China that has been the focus of geologic studies over the past 40 years. Since the late 1990s, numerous geophysical and geological investigations of this dislocation zone have been carried out by Chinese oil companies, as well as by universities. However, its deep structure, active periods of slip, and fault mechanism remain obscure. This study focuses on the deep structures within the Jiashan–Lujiang segment of the Tan–Lu fault belt, using high-precision geophysical tools, including magnetotelluric and magnetic sounding, and artificial seismic exploration using active source methods. Our results suggest that this segment is composed of several sub-faults. The southern part of the Tan–Lu fault belt, along the Jiashan–Lujiang sub-fault, can be divided into two parts on the basis of contrasting geological features. The Chihe–Taihu sub-fault is taken as the boundary between the two. The region east of the Chihe–Taihu sub-fault is dominated by str...

Qinling ore belt is the largest known molybdenum belt in the world with a total reserve of >5 Mt of Mo metal. Based on the geochemical behaviour of Mo, the structural settings of the Qinling orogenic belt, and geological events in eastern China, we propose that tectonic settings are of critical importance to the formation of these ore deposits. Molybdenum is very rare in the earth with an abundance of ∼0.8 ppm in the continental crust. Both surface- and magmatic-hydrothermal enrichment processes are required for Mo mineralization. It can be easily oxidized to form water-soluble MoO4 – in the surface environment, especially in the Phanaerozoic, and then precipitated under anoxic conditions. Therefore, closed or semi-closed water bodies with large catchment areas and high chemical erosion rates are the most favourable locations for Mo-enriched sediments. The Qinling orogenic belt was located in the tropics during crustal collisions, such that the chemical erosion was presumably intense, whereas the Erlangpi...

We studied the geochemical characteristics of three types of Mesozoic igneous rocks from the Luzong volcanic basin: basaltic trachyandesite at Shuangmiao, pyroxene monzonite at Bajiatan, and quartz-syenite (A-type granite) at Huangmeijian. Based on analyses of whole-rock major elements, all investigated rocks are enriched in K, Na, Ti, Al, but depleted in Ca, representing a shoshonitic series. Trace element analyses show that these rocks are characterized by enrichments of large-ion lithophile elements and high field strength elements. Positive Nb and Ta anomalies in the chondrite-normalized spider diagram indicate that the shoshonitic volcanic rocks share similar features with Nb-enriched basalts, which are different from normal island-arc volcanical rocks (they are typically strongly depleted in Nb and Ta). Bulk-rock chemical compositions and Sr–Nd isotopes indicate that the three types of igneous rocks are geochemically comagmatic, suggesting that the melts were derived from an enriched mantle reservoi...

The Early Cretaceous Huangmeijian Pluton is an A-type granite located on the northern bank of the Lower Yangtze River in Anhui Province, east-central China. It intruded the SE edge of the Early Cretaceous Luzong volcanic basin. The moderate- to coarse-grained granite is mainly composed of alkali feldspar, plagioclase, and quartz and has a typical A-type geochemical signature. LA-ICP-MS zircon dating yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of 127.1 ± 1.4 Ma, similar to other A-type granites in the Lower Yangtze River belt, indicating an Early Cretaceous extensional environment. Temperatures calculated using the Ti-in-zircon thermometer suggest that the magma formed under high-temperature conditions (720–880°C). The low calculated Ce(IV)/Ce(III) ratio based on zircon rare earth element patterns indicates low oxygen fugacity for this A-type magma. Previous studies suggested that eastern China was an active plate margin related to the Early Cretaceous subduction of the Pacific and Izanagi plates. The ridge bet...

Adakites may form by partial melting of either the subducting oceanic lithosphere or the lower part of the continental crust. These two magma types can be discriminated geochemically using a combination of La/Yb, Sr/Y ratios, MgO and Na2O contents, and Sr–Nd isotopes. Given that the basaltic crust has Cu concentrations more than two times higher than the lower continental crust and the mantle wedge, ‘primitive’ adakites produced by oceanic slab melting should contain significantly higher Cu contents than adakites derived from the continental crust, as well as normal arc andesites. A globally compiled dataset shows that Cu concentrations in adakites are generally lower than that in normal arc rocks. We attribute this low copper content to loss of magmatic fluids as a result of sulphate reduction during adakitic magma differentiation, in turn induced by the crystallization of Fe–Ti oxides, essential to mineralization. Therefore, the underflow of oceanic-slab-derived adakites that can release larger amounts ...

SE China is well known for its Mesozoic large-scale granitoid plutons and ore deposits. In SE China, igneous rocks with intrusion ages between 180 and 125 Ma generally become progressively younger towards the NE. More specifically, 180–160 Ma igneous rocks are distributed throughout a broad area, with mineralization ranging from Cu–Au and Pb–Zn–Ag to W–Sn; 160–150 Ma plutons are present mainly in the Nanling region and are associated with the large-scale W–Sn mineralization; younger igneous rocks occur in the NE area that has many fewer deposits. These can be plausibly interpreted as reflecting a southwestward subduction followed by a northeastward rollback of a subducted oceanic slab, in rough agreement with contemporaneous drift of the Pacific plate. Consistent with this scenario, SE China contains three Jurassic metallogenic belts distributed systematically from NE to SW: (1) a Cu–(Au) metallogenic belt in the NE corner of the South China Block, represented by the Dexing porphyry Cu deposits; (2) a Pb–...

Cretaceous adakites are widely distributed in the Lower Yangtze River Belt (LYRB) and the Dabie Mountains, east-central China. Adakites from the LYRB in general are closely associated with Cu–Au deposits, whereas Dabie adakites lack any mineralization. Based on geochemical characteristics, we show that these adakites have different origins; for example, adakites from the Dabie Mountains have more variable Sr/Y (6.47–1303) and systematically higher La/Yb (20.8–402), Th/U (2.28–50.6), and Nb/Ta (5.07–65.2) compared to adakites from the LYRB, Sr/Y (28.8–185), La/Yb (14.1–49), Th/U (0.33–8), and Nb/Ta (7.5–23). The systematically higher La/Yb of Dabie adakites supports their continental origin, because the La/Yb of the lower continental crust is more than 10 times higher than that of mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB). Moreover, the lower continental crust is also highly enriched in Sr, with Sr/Y > 10 times that of MORB. Interestingly, with the exception of those from Fuziling, most Dabie adakites have Sr/Y compar...

Fluid inclusions hosted by quartz veins in high-pressure to ultrahigh-pressure (HP-UHP) metamorphic rocks from the Chinese Continental Scientific Drilling (CCSD) Project main drillhole have low, varied hydrogen isotopic compositions (δD = −97‰ to −69‰). Quartz δ18O values range from −2.5‰ to 9.6‰; fluid inclusions hosted in quartz have correspondingly low δ18O values of −11.66‰ to 0.93‰ (T h = 171.2∼318.8°C). The low δD and δ18O isotopic data indicate that protoliths of some CCSD HP-UHP metamorphic rocks reacted with meteoric water at high latitude near the surface before being subducted to great depth. In addition, the δ18O of the quartz veins and fluid inclusions vary greatly with the drillhole depth. Lower δ18O values occur at depths of ∼900–1000 m and ∼2700 m, whereas higher values characterize rocks at depths of about 1770 m and 4000 m, correlating roughly with those of wall-rock minerals. Given that the peak metamorphic temperature of the Dabie-Sulu UHP metamorphic rocks was about 800°C or higher, m...

Plate subduction and mantle plumes are two of the most important material transport processes of the silicate Earth. Currently, a debate exists over whether the subducted oceanic crust is recycled back to the Earth's surface through mantle plumes, and can explain their derivation and major characteristics. It is also puzzling as to why plume heads have huge melting capacities and differ dramatically from plume tails both in size and chemical composition. We present data showing that both ocean island basalt and mid-ocean ridge basalt have identical supra-primitive mantle mean Nb/U values of ∼46.7, significantly larger than that of the primitive mantle value. From a mass balance calculation based on Nb/U we have determined that nearly the whole mantle has evolved by plate subduction-induced crustal recycling during formation of the continental crust. This mixing back of subducted oceanic crust, however, is not straightforward, because it generally would be denser than the surrounding mantle, both in solid ...

Fractionation between Nb and Ta, elements generally regarded as geochemical ‘identical twins’, is a key to deciphering the formation of the continental crust (CC). Here we show that Nb/Ta of rutile grains in eclogitic rocks from the Chinese Continental Scientific Drilling (CCSD) project are remarkably heterogeneous but overall subchondritic at core depths of 100–700 m, and are less variable and mainly suprachondritic at core depths of 700–3025 m, indicating clear Nb/Ta fractionation across a subducted slab. To understand the potential mechanism of Nb/Ta fractionation within the subducted plate, we analysed by laser ablation ICPMS a thermal migration experiment in which a wet andesite was placed in a large thermal gradient (300°C/cm with ends ranging from 950–350°C) at 0.5Gpa. Results show that Nb, Ta and Ti, driven by the thermal gradient, preferentially migrate by diffusion through supercritical fluids into the cooler end of the experiment (at 650–350°C). Due to contrasting Nb and Ta thermal migration p...

The Tongling district is one of the most important non‐ferrous metal producers in China. The origin of Cu–Au deposits in the region is closely related to Late Mesozoic intermediate intrusions, which are mainly high‐K calc‐alkaline and shoshonitic series. Geochemical characteristics indicate that these granitic rocks are mixtures of more than two compositional end‐members, i.e. mantle‐derived melts and crust components incorporated through assimilation. Three important magmatic intrusions related to the Cu–Au deposits in the Tongling region – the Jiguanshi quartz monzodiorite, the Xishizishan quartz diorite and the Miaojia diorite porphyry – were selected for this study. Zircon U–Pb dating by LA ICP‐MS yielded two groups of ages (∼130–132 and 138–140 Ma) for these intrusions. Pyrite Re–Os age for the Xinqiao Cu–Fe–S deposit in the Tongling region is 126±11 Ma. Trace elements of zircon grains show that the earlier Cu–Au mineralization event was associated with adakitic rocks characterized by high positive C...

Quartz from sandstone‐type uranium deposits in the east part of the Ordos Basin contains abundant secondary fluid inclusions hosted along sealed fractures or in overgrowths. These inclusions consist mainly of water with NaCl, KCl, CO2 (135–913 ppm) and trace amounts of CO (0.22–16.8 ppm), CH4 (0.10–1.38 ppm) and [SO4]2− (0.35–111 ppm). Homogenization temperatures of the studied fluid inclusions range from 90 to 210°C, with salinities varying from 0.35 to 12.6 wt‐% (converted to NaCl wt%), implying multiple stages of thermal alteration. Although high U is associated with a high homogenization temperature in one case, overall U mineralization is not correlated with homogenization temperature nor with salinity. The H and O isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions show typical characteristics of formation water, with δ18O ranging from 9.8 to 12.3‰ and δD from 26.9 to −48.6‰, indicating that these fluid inclusions are mixtures of magmatic and meteoric waters. The oxygen isotope ratios of carbonates in cement ...

The Songshugou ultramafic massif is located to the north of the Shang‐Dan fault, the Palaeozoic suture between the North and South China blocks. It is the largest Apline‐type ultramafic body in the Qinling orogenic belt of central China, consisting mainly of dunite with a small amount of harzburgite and minor pyroxenite. We present new LA‐ICP‐MS U−Pb dating and trace element results for zircon from two garnet amphibolite samples in the contact metamorphic zone surrounding the massif. One was sampled ∼1 m from the massif, the other ∼5 m away. The studied zircon grains are small, anhedral, and display typical metamorphic characteristics of low Th/U values (

Most of the world's Cu resources are hosted in the west coast of the North and South American continents along the eastern Pacific margin, with estimated total resources of over 1.8 billion tons, a...

We dedicate this special issue to Professor Yinfo Chang in appreciation of his lifetime contribution to the study of economic geology in China and in celebration of his 80th birthday. Professor Cha...