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This paper aims to present, from the perspectives of Germany and Japan, some of the major issues facing the international community in reaching agreement on the Kyoto Protocol and its implementation. It also provides the background leading up to the creation of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Berlin Mandate, and the Kyoto Protocol. Although the protocol was finally signed by all participating countries (except a few) after long, protracted negotiations, the Berlin Mandate, the legally-binding minimum targets set forth for reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2008 to 2012, and the priorities given to domestic solutions over external measures provided some countries, notably the United States, an excuse for rejecting the protocol. During the subsequent international negotiations Germany took a lead in pushing the hard-line European Union position, while Japan tried to mediate between the European Union and the soft-line United States position to bring the two sides closer together in an attempt to bring the United States back into the protocol, get it ratified by as many signatory countries as possible, and put into effect as soon as possible. The paper concludes that while the protocol's fate appears to have ended up in the hands of Russia, the greatest hurdle for GHG emissions reduction lies ultimately in the extent to which the governments of developed countries and European economies in transition can convince their citizens, corporations, and other entities to meet those targets within the prescribed time limit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to examine the repercussions in Japan wrought by the Kyoto Protocol, which it signed in 1997, and to point the way for the country's response in the next and future rounds of protocol-related negotiations. This challenge is met by first reviewing Japan's past negotiating positions at the international level and relevant movements inside the country prior to and after it signed the protocol, and then by examining the protocol's effects on Japan. This review finds that the following points are important to be aware of when attempting to understand Japan's dynamics relating to the Kyoto Protocol: (1) it is the only internationally agreed text to address climate change; (2) it is the only major multilateral environmental agreement ever adopted in Japan, giving it special significance to domestic actors; (3) the negotiation process represented a new approach to foreign policy; and (4) its negotiation was part of a learning process for Japan on multilateral negotiations on climate change. Japan has now begun to prepare for a new round of climate change negotiations, and the learning that has occurred is now reflected in two very distinct views within Japan as to the ways to move forward. As Japan's government works to merge the demands of all ministries concerned, its position in future negotiations is likely to remain vague externally; internally, on the other hand, the Japanese people will be increasingly concerned about climate change policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]