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Regarding the fact that gay men leave less offspring than straight men, it is appropriate to raise a question by which means is male homosexuality maintained in a population and what could eventually be its evolutionary role. The aim of this paper is to summarize theories that try to explain male homosexuality within the framework of evolution. Furthermore, it aims to critically evaluate the results of empirical research that support particular theories or give evidence against them. In the first part, the paper provides a review of knowledge about the genetic and immunological origins of male homosexuality which consequently serves as a theoretical base for the main part of the paper that pursues the five most influential evolutionary theories of male homosexuality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. The paper introduced the concept of narrative sensitivity. The study aimed to identify the facets of narrative sensitivity (NS) in medical students and assess the changes in NS during undergraduate medical education. Methods. A mixed method study was designed to explore NS. Data was collected from a group of students in their second year (N=50) and then in their fifth year (N=42) of their undergraduate education. The data was analysed using thematic analysis in accordance with consensual qualitative research. A coding system was developed to identify and refine the facets of NS. The theme frequencies were counted for each year separately and Fisher’s exact test was conducted to assess the statistical significance of NS change between both years. Results. Nine themes related to NS were identified in the data. The frequency of themes indicated a trend towards a decline in NS between the second and fifth years of undergraduate education. However, the exploratory nature of this study and the small sample size did not allow any definitive conclusions regarding changes over time. Conclusions. The findings raised doubts about the outcome of undergraduate education based on a narrow biomedical perspective. The study supported the arguments for giving emphasis on training of communication skills including narrative sensitivity during medical education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. The Outcome Rating Scale (ORS) is an ultra-brief self-report scale designed to measure change during psychotherapy. The goal of this study was to test (a) the factor structure of the ORS, (b) the measurement invariance between a clinical and a non-clinical sample, between pre-therapy and post-therapy assessment (within the clinical sample), and between online and paper-and-pencil forms of administration (within the non-clinical sample), (c) concurrent validity with other outcome measures, and (d) sensitivity to therapeutic change. Sample and settings. N = 256 patients, N = 210 non-clinical respondents, and N = 89 students participated in the study. Patients responded to the ORS before and after psychotherapy. Statistical analysis. The factor structure and measurement invariance were tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Concurrent validity and test-retest reliability were assessed using correlational analysis. Sensitivity to change was assessed using the Reliable Change Index and pre-post effect size. Results. The unidimensional structure was supported. The best-fitting model was a partially tau-equivalent model with the first and the fourth items' loadings fixed to the same value. While only metric invariance was demonstrated between the clinical and non-clinical samples, the ORS demonstrated scalar invariance between pre- and post-therapy assessment and strict invariance between the paper-and-pencil and online forms of administration. Internal consistency, as well as concurrent validity, were satisfactory. The sensitivity to the therapeutic change was adequate. Furthermore, internal consistency and sensitivity to change were increased if the score was computed as a weighted sum of items. Study limitation. The samples were not representative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientific literacy is one of the crucial skills necessary for making informed decisions and evaluating evidence. Despite the fact that the overall results of Slovak students in scientific literacy are lower than the average for OECD countries, there is still a lack of interventions focusing explicitly on fostering scientific literacy in the educational system. Therefore, this literature review aims to determine: 1. types of interventions that can be used to foster scientific literacy; 2. the main features of interventions responsible for their effectiveness. Authors conducted a content analysis of 40 empirical scientific papers, focusing on two aspects of scientific literacy: scientific reasoning ability and attitudes toward science. The study indicates that scientific reasoning ability can be effectively improved with the interventions focused on 1. scientific argumentation; 2. understanding nature of science; 3. process of scientific discovery. Interventions focused on improving attitudes toward science share similar characteristics as interventions focused on scientific reasoning and can be classified similarly. Other aspects, such as the level of guidance, teaching strategy, gender, and domain of the intervention can also play an important role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this theoretical review is to outline how the levels of retirement (retirement as an institution, life stage and personal experience) go together and what it means for psychological retirement research. The first section summarizes the brief history of the retirement institution. The second part describes the situation when the baby boomers generation comes into retirement age. In this generation, changes in life cycle patterns, such as work or parental delays, may be observed, but in particular, it is the introduction of a third phase of life that changes the meaning of a traditionally understood retirement. The third part of the paper presents theories on which psychological retirement research is based (role theory, continuity theory, the life course perspective and the resource-based dynamic model). Characterized are the topics that are examined most (retirement as decision making, late career development and adjustment). The author argues that the psychological theory of retirement can not be constructed, as the retirement is not a psychological phenomenon. This, however, does not diminish the potential of the psychological knowledge of this life stage in the present historical period. Therefore, the fourth and fifth parts of the paper address two themes where "old" notions and "new" external retirement options are encountered: retirement transition and retirement adjustment. It points to the fragmentation and diversity of current retirement transition and its implications for research. The problem of the persistence of the (low) retirement age is analyzed. When examining retirement adjustment, the sequence of this process and the need to separate adjustment and retirement life satisfaction indicators are highlighted. In conclusion, the author states that psychological retirement research faces the challenge of reflecting societal changes and examining their consequences for the psychological functioning and well-being of individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this theoretical paper is to organize and elaborate on the conception of stages in the ritualization of experience. Erikson frames the ritualization as a process of playful adaptation that individualizes formal and informal ritual practices. Despite the many inspirations Erikson brought to psychology and play theory, the relation between ontogenesis, ritualization, and playfulness is not fully explored. This paper advocates the important role of playfulness during human development drawing on conclusions from contemporary research and play theory. Subsequently, the eight stages of ritualization are put in a context of ego integrity construction. According to Erikson, play forms the mental space in mind and reality that enables ego to develop mastery over reality and achieve greater coherence. The later stages of life are emphasized here to propose the potential role of playfulness in successful aging and coping with death. Playfulness is then discussed as an idealistic principle of general development and as the specific style of ego integrity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. With growing interest in hallucinogens, majority of psychedelic research focus mostly on the therapeutic potential and benefits. The objective of this paper is to explore how users of psychedelics verbalize their experience and perceived risks of using such substances. Methods. The authors used a questionnaire with open-ended and multiple-choice items. The sample included persons with at least one phenomenological experience with psychedelics (N = 422, age M=27.78; SD=7.84; SE=0.38; 35.1% women). Qualitative data were analyzed using concepts of The Grounded Theory using the Atlas.ti suite. Results. The target group uses terms taken from the English language ("bad trip", "set and setting", "sitter", or the grammatically localized version of the word „psychedelic"), with shared and well-understood semantic meaning within the community. The central domain "inappropriate set and setting" and its inadequate preparation is linked to the negative experience of "bad trip" which can lead to difficult "integration of experience" or even "psychotic disorders". Users of psychedelics report various harm reduction strategies which are consistent with relevant literature. Conclusion. This study illustrates that Slovak users of psychedelics seem to understand and use the established terminology of international discourse related to these substances. At the same time the authors suggest that users seem to use various relevant strategies to lower risks associated with the use of psychedelics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. Previous research has shown that the acquisition of personal pronouns benefits from input with higher amounts of stable reference. This paper aims to provide more evidence of how input is structured. The language under study is Slovak, a pro-drop language, allowing to extend the study of input to verb marking. Participants and setting. The longitudinal study follows speech directed to three children in two families from the age 1;9 to 3;0. Hypotheses. It was hypothesised that the incidence of first and second person singular pronouns and verb marking as expressions with shifting reference grows with the child's age while the incidence of proper names and category names as expressions with stable reference decreases with the child's age. Statistical analysis. Occurrences of first and second person singular pronouns and verb marking as expressions with shifting reference as well as proper names and category names referring to the speaker and addressee as expressions with stable reference were found and analysed. Simple regression analysis testing was conducted on the data. Results. The results confirm the hypothesis, showing an increase in first and second person singular pronouns and verb marking over time, at the expense of proper names and category names referring to the speaker and the addressee. Study limitations. The study is limited by the size of the sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. Previous research has shown that the acquisition of personal pronouns benefits from input with higher amounts of stable reference. This paper aims to provide more evidence of how input is structured. The language under study is Slovak, a pro-drop language, allowing to extend the study of input to verb marking. Participants and setting. The longitudinal study follows speech directed to three children in two families from the age 1;9 to 3;0. Hypotheses. It was hypothesised that the incidence of first and second person singular pronouns and verb marking as expressions with shifting reference grows with the child's age while the incidence of proper names and category names as expressions with stable reference decreases with the child's age. Statistical analysis. Occurrences of first and second person singular pronouns and verb marking as expressions with shifting reference as well as proper names and category names referring to the speaker and addressee as expressions with stable reference were found and analysed. Simple regression analysis testing was conducted on the data. Results. The results confirm the hypothesis, showing an increase in first and second person singular pronouns and verb marking over time, at the expense of proper names and category names referring to the speaker and the addressee. Study Limitations. The study is limited by the size of the sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As in the previous paper, the authors investigated the history of post-war Czech and Slovak psychology based predominantly on archival sources. In the present article, they focused on the topic of graduate education in psychology and how it changed through the decades. The trends in various areas are mapped and the differences from the current state of the art are articulated, together with the role of historical context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, mental disorders are usually conceptualized as a hidden causal factor, manifested by its symptoms. This notion rests upon the reflective latent model, which is implicitly at work every time complex symptomatology gets summarized by a single number or a categorical state. The present paper reflects on the quantitative, testable implications of this psychometric model and shows how its restraints are untenable for most mental disorders. The observed data are instead consistent with mental disorders being complex dynamic systems. Instead of being treated as interchangeable measures of the same latent factor, symptoms likely act as independent causal entities, directly affecting each other. In recent years, this shift in ontological stance toward psychopathology has laid a basis for adapting the network theory. Under this theory, a mental disorder is a relatively stable emergent state, which arises due to a pronounced and recurrent interaction of causally linked symptoms. It is discussed how models embedded within the network theory can help provide insight into the etiopathogenesis of mental disorders and address clinical intervention. In conclusion, limits and future challenges to the network theory are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Czech and Slovak educational systems stand at the doorstep of the fundamental reforms, accentuating the development of psychosocial qualities of all stakeholders engaged in education as determinants of a successful educational process. The narrative review focuses on research studies conducted since 2001, based on the paradigm of attachment and motivational theories of self-determination. Paper provides an overview of how the concept of school achievement and the individual key constructs of the teacher-student relationship are operationalized (closeness, conflict, relatedness, autonomy support, structure). It discusses main conclusions of the most significant studies in this area, as well as some inconsistent results and methodological problems. After rigorous impact and content selection, the review includes 17 empirical studies. Finally, specific current research challenges in the field are considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NS), such as depression, apathy, hallucinations, etc., as well as changes in creativity in older age, are telltale marks in the development of such neurodegenerative diseases as Alzheimer's disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Lewy body disease, and Parkinson's disease. Both NS and creativity are important non-cognitive aspects of behavior that changes as a result of neurodegeneration, similar to the development of cognitive deficit. NS can occur in the preclinical stages of neurodegeneration, as well as in the clinical stages (mild cognitive impairment or dementia). However, in clinical routine, their presence is underestimated, or patients with neurodegeneration are often considered to have psychiatric disorders, which may negatively affect their treatment. Scientific research is increasingly devoted to the analysis of the non-cognitive aspects of neurodegenerative diseases, resulting in the newly defined concept of Mild Behavioral Impairment (MBI). In this paper, a review of the most common NS and changes in creativity as a result of neurodegeneration with a special focus on Alzheimer's disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, Lewy body disease, and Parkinson's disease is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to dimensional model of mental disorders paranoia represents a construct across the normal -- pathological continuum. Persecutory delusions, as a symptom of many mental disorders, can be considered an extremely expressed end of the paranoid continuum. In general, the literature provides several theories which, to different degrees, emphasize the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms responsible for the formation and maintenance of paranoid symptomatology and persecutory delusions. The aim of the paper is to describe and explain the current theoretical concepts of paranoia and persecutory delusions, with an emphasis on psychological mechanisms contributing to their formation and maintenance. In Bentall's concept, it is proposed that paranoia is a psychological defense against low self-esteem. Cognitive model of Freeman and Garety, however, suggested low self-esteem to be just one of many factors involved in the occurrence of paranoia. Models are compared and confronted with current empirical evidence. Implications for clinical practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth mentoring interventions are based on one-to-one long-term mentoring relationships formed between a volunteer and socially disadvantaged children and young people, and operate also in the Czech Republic. The paper presents a literature review that revisits the Rhodes Theoretical Model on mentoring processes (2002, 2005). In particular, the presented literature review operates the characteristics and dynamics of mentoring relational features that do or do not mediate mentoring benefits in formal youth mentoring relationships. It contributes to the current theory, research and evidence-based practice in the field of youth mentoring, social psychology and theories on development in social context with 1) Synthetizing the features of formal youth mentoring relationships associated with the quality of mentoring bonds; 2) Reviewing the research studies on relational dynamics and quality. Thus, it reviews the beneficial as well as risk relational and individual features in formal youth mentoring bonds, and 3) Reviewing features of Beneficial and Risky formal youth mentoring bonds. As a result, it revisits the model of pathways of benefits in formal youth mentoring relationships (Rhodes, 2002, 2005) according to the literature results published in the field to date. Subsequently, it informs academics, professionals and volunteers who interact with children and young people in the role of mentors, significant adults and role models; and thus contribute to evidence-based practice in these professions and services with research evidence on mentoring principles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper aims to define the concept of "felt sense", introduced in psychology and psychotherapy by E. T. Gendlin, in order to clarify its relation to bodily sensations and its difference from emotions. Gendlin's own definition, according to which the felt sense is a conceptually vague bodily feeling with implicit meaning, is too general for this task. Gendlin's definition is specified by pointing out, first, the different layers of awareness of bodily feelings and, second, the difference between bodily readiness for action and motivation for action. According to the more precise definition, the felt sense is the awareness of readiness to act carried by the configuration of bodily sensations. The felt sense differs from emotions because it is not able to motivate the action for which it makes us ready. The article also discusses the intuition that led to the founding of Gendlin's psychotherapeutic technique and compares it with the psychoanalytic concept of working through resistance during therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. The study presents a social psychological theory of political correctness. Political correctness is conceived as a tool which aims to attain a society in which members of minority groups will share the same degree of dignity as members of majority. To achieve this ideal, it works on three different levels. On the level of civic society it serves to heighten and to shield prestige of minorities, on the level of political system it serves to attain some political goals of progressive left, and on the level of ideology it serves to defend a neo-Marxist theory of social stratification. The crux of political correctness is a proscriptive social norm. Hypotheses. According to the main hypothesis political correctness is applied on each level in the same three steps: (1) in the first step, politically incorrect words, utterances, data and acts are identified. (2) In the next step, an ideological stereotype is applied. This stereotype explains the use of politically incorrect words and utterances by means of racism, sexism, homophobia, etc. (3) in the last step the nonconforming behavior is punished. Sample and settings. Some two hundred articles were read, analyzed and categorized. Analyses. There are a dozen of citations and direct quotations from the original articles which are in support of the hypotheses. At the same time some alternative hypotheses are presented and demonstrated to be problematic. Results. The results of these analyses are in a good fit with the theory. Study limitation. The work is based primarily on papers describing Czech scene so the results may not be generalizable to different cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maternal depression is one of the most common prenatal and postnatal complications. Such complications may seriously compromised the neuropsychological development of the new being. This paper provides an overview of potential biological, neurological and psychological factors that might be involved into the risk factors. Perinatal maternal depression is presented and reviewed as an example of the interaction of placental, epigenetic and early parenting factors elevating risk of poor fetus, neonatal, infant and child development. Available evidence points to the importance of in-utero influences as well as the importance of early attachment and parenting. It is pointed out that models of the early aetiology of mental disorders, such as perinatal depression, are complex with a range of potential factors from genetic and epigenetic to environmental influencing neurological, emotional and psychosocial development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a chronic condition, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) significantly reduces the quality of life of young working age population. The etiopathogenesis of IBD is multifactorial, combining several genetic and environmental factors. Psychosocial aspects that affect the progress of the disease and may have therapeutic effects on the disease are currently being extensively studied, and a clear conceptual approach to their role in IBD management has yet to be identified. The attachment theory states that a relation to a primary caregiver is critical to forming relations with others and to viewing the world around us. A sense of security seems to protect us against psychological disorders and somatic diseases. The paper presented is a synthesis of previous studies dealing with individual expressions of the attachment theory and their effect on the progress and the management of the disease, offering a potential pathogenetic mechanism of the attachment with respect to the origin and development of IBD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Goals. The aim of the paper is to support the process of differentiation of the victims affected by bullying in the workplace as based on behavioral and subjective indicators of workplace as same as to examine the characteristics of the mental state of the bullied employees with the support of factual significance in individual subgroups. Sample and method. The survey sample consisted of 7,103 employees, aged 18-68 (26.26% men and 73.74% women, M = 42, SD = 11.03). The variables were recorded using the Czech version of the revised Negative Acts Questionnaire (NAQ-R) and the Structure and Dynamics of Subjective States (SUPSO) including the anamnestic questionnaire. Statistical analysis. Using the Statistica 12 program, the descriptive values, t-tests, including two vectors of the average values of the Hotelling test were carried out. The effect size (Cohen' s d) were calculated using the formula from the basic numerical characteristics. Results. The results of the survey showed that bullying at the workplace is related with psychological well-being, activity, impulsiveness, tension, depression, anxiety and depression in the defined subgroups of bullied employees. Limitations. The major limitations of the study include the methodological limitations of the questionnaire. The questionnaire NAQ-R is also associated with limited comparability of the empirical findings concerning the prevalence of workplace bullying in different countries, due to the cultural, social, organizational and other specifics of the already realized studies. Also, choosing the local SUPSO method can open the question of comparability. The limit of research is also non-representativeness of selected sample of workers, as well as the unequal representation of men and women or the disparity between the state, non-profit and private sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. Poverty has been premised as one of the main causes of various forms of non-productive behaviour such as the unwillingness to delay gratification. The paper aims to examine the relationship between income, as an objective economic indicator, and poor delay of gratification. It puts a particular focus on different poverty thresholds and also after taking cognitive load into account. Sample and settings. A total of 697 participants (out of which 233 also completed the retest) were recruited in two data collections. The participants provided information about their household income, frequency in experiencing negative affect and stress (together forming cognitive load) as well as their tendency to delay gratification. Statistical analysis. The effect sizes for each subsample and poverty threshold were synthesized in a multilevel meta-analysis. Additional Bayesian estimations served as a sensitivity analysis. In order to test whether the average effect sizes differed from Hedges, g = 0.2 (our smallest effect size of interest), equivalence testing was used. Results. The results indicated very small effects of poverty thresholds on the willingness to delay gratification. Hedges, g varied from -0.01 to 0.20 for all the performed analyses. Study limitations. The potential limitations/explanations of the results have been identified. In particular, the core sociodemographic aspects of the sample, the possible social desirability in responding, the general over-reliance on objective poverty thresholds when explaining psychological concepts as well as the rather low verisimilitude of existing theories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with Lars Tornstam's Theory of Gerotranscendence. The author had been elaborating his theory for twenty years based on qualitative and quantitative research. Doing this he had in his mind, in particular, persons over the age of 85, i.e. persons in the fourth age, the oldest old. The aim of the article is to draw attention to the Tornstam's view of age and aging that has remained almost unrecognized in our country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives. The purpose of this paper was (a) description of characteristic traits of inner disposition to aggressive conduct; (b) verification of association of the construct and accompanying factors and launching mechanisms; (c) construction of local norms using responses from incarcerated adolescents. Subjects and settings. Responses were obtained from a sample of 191 boys presently confined in five prisons for adolescents, average age 16,85; SD=1,55; range 14-19 years. The subjects filled in the BPAQ-SF, NIM18 questionnaires, a scale reflecting social status of respondents, and a scale describing relations of respondents to parents individually. Administration of instruments was individual, anonymous, and after signing informed consent. Results. The psychometric integrity of instruments was supported using confirmatory factor analysis. Item analysis of the BPAQ-SF scale revealed primarily well-marked negative emotional life experience, general dissatisfaction and proclivity to reactive aggression. Distribution of the scale scores was positively skewed but the range of values comprised only the higher part of theoretical interval. The readiness to react violently was noticeably associated with uneasy relation to mother, responding without proper consideration or reflection, deficit of interpersonal skills, and accompanied by social alienation, low social status, disregard of consensual social norms. Local norms were constructed in percentile format together with 95% CI using Bayesian approach. Study limitation. Sample of adolescents was not representative and self-reporting within forensic populations is especially susceptible to social desirability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individual mindfulness appears to be critical for multiple processes necessary for an organization's survival, such as learning, sensemaking and managing the unexpected. Moreover, several positive effects of individual mindfulness on mental health of employees were discovered and scientists have invented several programs which aim to develop individual mindfulness. To objectively evaluate the effects of individual mindfulness on organizational processes, employees' health and the effectiveness of individual mindfulness development programs, it is necessary to accurately measure individual mindfulness. Although several mindfulness measurement tools have been created, there is still a lack of information to help users choose a specific measurement instrument in their situation. This paper tries to provide such information by using the traditional literature review method to assess three methods of individual mindfulness measurement based on three criteria: (1) how these instruments operationalize mindfulness, (2) what requirements they place upon respondents, and (3) how their scores correlate with mental factors: The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Toronto Mindfulness Scale and the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Moreover, the findings of this study confirm substantial differences between the methods in these criteria and reveal a lasting lack of consensus concerning the conceptualization of individual mindfulness in organizational practice, with implications for other organizational phenomena. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present international image theory (IIT) that is unknown in Czech and Slovak psychology. This theory is used in political psychology to investigate intergroup stereotypes in the international arena. It is argued that the IIT provides an integrative framework for stereotype content research in the international arena, anchored in particular political and cultural context. The first part of the paper presents the historical background of the theory and offers a synthetic definition of five main images - enemy, ally, barbarian, imperialist and dependent - based on critical analysis of existing literature. The second part focuses on image theory limitations, especially as far as the operationalization of images and the theory use outside of the context of international relations are concerned. The third part outlines perspectives for further research and practical implications of image theory, mainly for political communication, international conflicts and crises resolution and relations between ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports three studies on Polish - German and Polish - Russian relations in the context of their difficult history (World War 2 and communist oppression), as well as process of reconciliation between the nations. The paper addressed questions and hypotheses on mechanisms responsible for constructive coping with the past, through apologies by the perpetrators and forgiveness on the side of their former victims. Bilateral relations with Poland's' neighbors had opposite trajectories after World War 2. In case of Germans, initial hostility was slowly transformed into friendship and cooperation in European Union and NATO . At the same time, reparations to victims of the Nazi were paid by Germany. Based on earlier literature it has been hypothesized that their apology, if seen as genuine, will facilitate forgiveness and dissociate intergroup forgiveness from perception of ingroup harm. The opposite trajectory characterizes Polish - Russian bilateral relations, where communist rule and oppression were depicted as friendship. We hypothesized that such situation would lead to cynicism and thus hinder forgiveness and empathy. Research findings (Study 1) reflect these developments: Germans are seen as more remorseful and are more forgiven than Russians. In order to inspect the relationship between remorse and forgiveness, a study that followed an experimental design was conducted. Its results suggest that the effect of apologies and their sincerity was found in study 2 as facilitating factors to forgiveness felt by Poles' also, the impact of the magnitude of harm was buffered by these conciliatory moves by German leaders. Study 3 concerned a situation of insincere reconciliation in Polish-Russian relations. Results show that such situation leads to cynicism and inhibits forgiveness, as well as compassion toward victims from the other nation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main idea of deliberative democracy (originating in the writings of John Rawls and Jürgen Habermas) is that citizens will consciously and effectively participate in a unique form of a group discussion (called the deliberative debate). Participation in a deliberation requires numerous sophisticated intellectual and social skills on the side of the citizen. The purposes of the paper are following. First, to make a few clarifications concerning studies on deliberative debates. Second, briefly comment on the current state of the research in the field emphasizing the contribution of Polish scholars. Particular attention is paid to attempts to measure the quality of group discussions. Typology of different modes of working out group recommendations is presented. The argumentation presented throughout the paper leads to the conclusion that even advanced attempts to initiate deliberative debates in real life conditions rarely lead to truly deliberative behaviours of disputants. Thus, the idea of „deliberative education" seems to emerge as a future prospect for deliberative democracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reflects a long-term ambiguity in the theoretical concept of affective phenomena. The focal point of this study is the conceptualization of the term "affect" with regard to the other affective phenomena (specifically emotion and mood). Our definition of affect is substantially different than existing Czech terminology and we define affect as the necessary component of all affective processes. Contrary to the Czech traditional concept of affect, we do not attribute characteristics such as "high intensity" or "disorganising influence" on cognitive processes, behaviour, etc. per se. We define affect in accordance with many authors, as a point in the continuum of affective stream and the basic unit of all affective phenomena. Affective phenomena or processes we consider as an umbrella term for a complex phenomenon like affect, emotion, mood, emotional episode, interpersonal attitude, sentiment, passion and so on: their common component is the affect. We consider emotion as a figure that emerges in the affective stream as a complex reaction to the event that has meaning for an individual and is interpreted with respect to the experience, context, individual characteristic, and sociocultural environment of the individual. Contrary to the Czech tradition, emotions are viewed as "just" one type of affective phenomena with a relatively specific definitional framework. The moods are considered parts of the affective stream continuum that have a specific and for consciousness accessible quality. The concepts of affect, emotion and mood discussed in this paper are contrasted; however, we have described where they overlap conceptually. The relationships of all affective phenomena have been considered as interacting with a tendency to synchronize into one (for an individual typical) affective stream. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with the comparison of defining and conceptual delineating the concepts cognitive processes, cognitive functions, and cognitive abilities. The categorization of cognitive processes on horizontal and vertical level is sketched. Three approaches to defining the concept of cognitive function in the relation to defining the concept of cognitive process are specified. The cognitive function is regarded as a task or algorithm, the cognitive process presents rather the course of the given function. The cognitive ability expresses the alternative or the quality of the process or function. The differences among cognitive processes and functions and their relations are explained on the basis of criteria of speed, visibility, and hierarchy. In the concluding part, the paper analyzes the difference between the concept of cognitive process and cognitive ability. The theoretical framework for delineation and analysis of concepts is represented besides psychology also by means of mathematics. The linguistic basis of mentioned concepts is also taken into account. The paper responds to the need to precise the terminology in the scope of breakthrough of psychological concepts into the social sciences discourses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trust is a very important part of life of every human and at the same time the theme for psychological science. It is the phenomenon related to all forms of life, activity, behavior, and human consciousness, without which, the human existence in contemporary world is not possible. Although it is the principal theme, there is to the present day no overview study in Czech describing complexly this phenomenon. The main goal of the paper is the description of the trust phenomenon, specific circumstances, selected characteristics, and processes connected to this phenomenon, namely by the means of analyses of accessible studies and by analyzing, which characteristics of trust are studied in contemporary research and in which context. The further goal of the paper is to map and organize the knowledge concerning the relevance and functions of trust and mistrust phenomenon in the existence and development of an individual on the basis of contemporary research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the deserved attention is paid to the phenomenon of spirituality and its linkage to health, the prevailing feature of these studies is noticeable both in Czech and international context: the nonsufficient conceptualization and non-distinguishing between spirituality and religiosity. The paper intends to highlight the differences between these two phenomena, on the basis of selected thoughts of Max Scheler (spirit as non-object particularity of human existence and self-realization), Viktor Frankl (spirit as a sphere of existential sense of life), and Mircea Eliade (distinguishing of sacred and profane modalities of existence). The distinction between religion and religiosity (transcendence into sacred sphere), and spirituality (transcendence of everydayness remaining in profane sphere) appears, with possibility of application on the health phenomenon. The linkage of spirituality and health is possible in dual form: the first is the search for the influence of spirituality on (physical or mental) health, the second is the peculiar mode of spiritual health. The paper points to selected studies elaborating both these possibilities in the form of brief overview. But the core of the text consists in highlighting the possibilities of the concept of spiritual health and its operationalization by specifying five factors constituting the spiritual health: authentic mode of existence (i.e. the relation to self), relation to other people in trust and openness, relation to nature as a exceeding whole, inquiring about sense of life, and becoming aware of overlapping and transcendence of everydayness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study deals with the construct of personal goals from the point of view of research in motivation. The development of this construct especially in last two decades is described. Personal goals are described as a generic construct including also some further similar former terms (personal project, life tasks, personal strivings). The main benefit of this construct is the complex perspective of relations among motivation, personality, and behavior of individual in the social context. While discussing these relations personal goals are presented as multilevel construct, the level of goal content and the level of the process of goals striving are described. The paper pays attention to problems of goal selfconcordance, to the role of goals autonomy, conflicts of goals, and to the multi-finality of goal directed activities. Further part of the paper is devoted to methodological questions of personal goals research. In the conclusion, the question of personal goals stability and the possibility to derive personally specific ways of goals selection and striving are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]