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How do states come to perceive that they are threatened by terrorism? And how do their specific features/characteristics determine their response to the threat? This paper examines the responses of Canada to international terrorism and highlights the different ways in which national identity determines when states will feel threatened and how they will respond. Canada is a good case study because we would expect it to follow American counter-terrorism policy closely for two reasons: first, because the Canadian economy is dependent on ties with the United States, and second, because of the close social, historical, and political links between the two countries.We ask how Canada came to see itself as threatened by international terrorism. We examine the responses of Canadians and the Canadian government to the attacks on the United States in September, 2001. We show that this threat perception is based on ideas of identity as much as on objective “facts”. We then discuss how dominant ideas about Canadian identity shaped the manner in which Canada responded to the threat. We do this by examining a number of policies enacted by the Canadian government in the years after 9/11, such as the 2001 Smart Border Accords and the Passenger Protect no-fly list, and find that they diverge from American policies in significant and interesting ways. We also examine Canadian responses to American counter-terrorism policies such as rendition and new passport requirements. Again, we find Canadian responses conditioned by Canadian identity. We conclude with some implications for theory and policy. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relation between the concepts of sovereignty and citizenship are currently being rearticulated through what is popularly referred to as Fortress North America. The War on Terror has amplified previously emerging shifts in governance, control and surveillance. One significant consequence is the development of increasing border harmonization schemes between the United States of America and Canada. This development has led to newly emerging categories of citizenship in both Canada and the USA. This paper seeks to provide a comparative analysis of this regime shift by investigating the modes of citizenship discourse that are articulated through the American Department of Homeland Security and specifically Operation Liberty Shield, and the shifts in citizenship that are currently being articulated by Bill C-18 amendments to the Citizenship Act of Canada. This investigation will pay particular attention to the shifts that are taking place with regards to the revocation of citizenship, the creation of new categories of citizenship through programs such as Nexus and the proposed introduction of bio-metric ID cards in Canada and the introduction of the discourse of the new normal. Through new border harmonization programs such as the Nexus Project citizens in both Canada and America will be organized, controlled and subjected to new forms of state surveillance. Increasingly, the necessity of new categories of citizenship, which are created through programs such as Nexus coupled with a generalized discourse of security at the border, are being contextualized within the new normal way of life in a post- September 11, 2001 North America. The discourse of the new normal is meant to signal a shift in our expectations of daily life. Whether we are experiencing the new normal due to disease, fear, risk, loss of faith or security, we are being called into place as subjects of this discourse. The new normal is used in reference to the need for greater control, the expectation of greater security and surveillance of cells, microbes, bodies and society. This paper will explore the logic that is embedded within the discourse of the new normal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Civil or homeland security provides an interesting case for the study of norms transmission. The ‘norm-takers’ in these cases are often officials in cities or arms of government not typically responsible for foreign policy or defence: transportation, civil infrastructure protection, and emergency management. These levels and branches of government are not an obvious site for international relations and security policy, but they have become the focus of policy for preventing and responding to terrorism. However, there is some precedent for civil security norms penetrating arms of government not typical seen to be engaged in international security: the civil defence policies of the cold war. I apply Amitav Acharya’s idea of norm localization, whereby local norms-takers engage in a dynamic process of interaction to adapt local and transnational norms to match each other, to civil security. How do local officials localize regional and global anti-terrorism norms to environments where global security is a new priority, but which already have well-established norms for dealing with natural disasters, crime, and other emergencies? The literature on norms diffusion typically posits a trickle-down effect, with transnational norms-entrepreneurs generating norms to be implemented domestically. But in this situation where local actors possess expertise in emergency response, is there evidence of a trickle-up effect, with local practice influencing regional or international norms? This paper will also contribute to the literature on the life-cycle of norms because it will focus on a case where localization may include re-invigorating the dormant norms of civil defence. Empirically, the paper will examine Canadian civil security policy, with a focus on the all-hazards norm for responding to emergencies. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Defence component of Canada?s International Policy Statement (April 2005) greatly emphasized the defense of Canadian territory and of the North American continent. Among the most important measures are the creation of the Canada Command (Cancom), the reinforcement of antiterrorist measures and "Enhanced North American Defence Cooperation," particularly naval cooperation. Drawing on key concepts of integration theory (spillover and mirror effect), this paper will situate these projects in relation to the greater North American security and defence integration process. It will argue that the creation of Canadian national security institutions, particularly the Department of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness (Dec. 2003) and Cancom, are necessary measures to deepen and broaden regional integration. Thus far limited to aerospace defence, the integration process is now incorporating the naval and ground dimensions, including the fight against terrorism and emergency preparedness. Hence, these measures can be viewed as a new and logical step in a process that started in 1940. ..PAT.-Conference Proceeding [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After 9-11, the United States underwent the most significant restructuring of its national security architecture since the end of World War II. The Homeland Security Act of 2002 and the National Security Act of 1947 both led to the creation of new Cabinet-level Departments and the merging of many federal agencies into new organizational structures to deal with the new threats and security challenges to the United States. The Department of Defense also underwent significant changes with the creation of a completely new Unified Command, U.S. Northern Command (NORTHCOM), chartered with providing the military response to Homeland Defense. Within NORTHCOM, there is a new challenge of expanding regional security cooperation beyond the traditional bilateral relations with Canada under the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD), to now include Mexico under the concept of ?perimeter defense? of the Northern Hemisphere against the threat of terrorism. Yet, such an expansion of mission and security cooperation between the United States, Mexico, and Canada involves many complex issues concerning ?regional governance? and the formation of new security relationships between all three nations. This paper will address Mexican challenges to cooperate with the US and Canada and the dilemmas in the construction of a new regional security perimeter. ..PAT.-Conference Proceeding [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canadian intelligence has played an increasing role over the past decade in supporting policy formulation and implementation. Canadian perceptions of intelligence evolved are currently changing, mirroring the developments relating to the global war on terrorism, the war in Iraq and Canada's increasing international roles. The paper will examine the changing perceptions of intelligence and security in Canada and explore the affects of theseperceptions on policy and government. ..PAT.-Conference Proceeding [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditionally understood as the "longest undefended border in the world," the boundary between the United States and Canada - its "friendly neighbour to the North" - has been an object of increasing scrutiny in post 9/11 security discourse. New technologies are playing a complex role in the process of uncovering the ideological and material edges between the United States and Canada. Since 9/11, biometrics - the science of using biological information for the purposes of identification - has become a crucial tool in describing this boundary. In my presentation I analyze the representation of biometrics at the boundaries of the nation state. I consider the discursive representation of biometrics technologies in recent Canada-US border agreements as able to solve the "problem" of the post 9/11 border. I review early media reports claiming that terrorists responsible for the attacks on the US entered across the Canadian border, and how they have served as justification for the expanded use of border biometrics. I examine US concerns about Canada’s allegedly liberal immigration and refugee policies that continue to cast Canada as the source of a racialized, "terrorist other." I argue that this narrative presents biometric technologies as a technology of power, capable of identifying suspect bodies crossing from north to south. In affixing a simplified representation of the body to a biometric identity document, I consider how time and space converge in technologies of embodiment to reconstruct and reify the boundaries of "othered" bodies. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]