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A new radiochromic dosimeter was examined with Raman spectroscopy and an optical approach for assessment of 3D dose distribution integrity. The acronym of the dosimeter is Fricke-XO-Pluronic F-127, where XO denotes xylenol orange; Pluronic F-127 is a copolymer matrix of poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(propylene oxide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide), and the dosimeter contains the components of a Fricke dosimetric solution. Two dosimeter samples in cuvettes were partially irradiated such that a radiation dose was absorbed at the bottom of the cuvettes. After irradiation, one sample was stored upside down such that the irradiated part was at the top and another one was stored with the irradiated part at the bottom. Two diffusion coefficients of ferric ion complexes with XO ([XO-Fe]+3) were calculated. They were compared with those for similar dosimeter, however with gelatine matrix instead of Pluronic F-127. The results obtained indicate an impact of the gravitational force on the diffusion of [XO-Fe]+3ions over time after irradiation and thus a possibility of severely undermining the integrity of a dose distribution in irradiated dosimeter. The conclusions drawn suggest the necessity of examination of different 3D Fricke dosimeter compositions for anisotropic diffusion of ferric ions.

This work reports the first results obtained using a new 3D radiochromic gel dosimeter. The dosimeter is an aqueous physical gel matrix made of poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(propylene oxide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (Pluronic F-127, PEO-PPO-PEO) doped with a representative of tetrazolium salts, 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). There were several reasons for the choice of Pluronic as a gel forming substrate: (i) the high degree of transparency and colourlessness; (ii) the possibility of gel dosimeter preparation at both high and low temperatures due to the phase behaviour of Pluronic; (iii) the broad temperature range over which the TTC-Pluronic dosimeter is stable; and (iv) the non-toxicity of Pluronic. A reason for the choice of TTC was its ionising radiation-induced transformation to water-insoluble formazan, which was assumed to impact beneficially on the spatial stability of the dose distribution. If irradiated, the TTC-Pluronic gels become red but transparent in the irradiated part, while the non-irradiated part remains crystal clear. The best obtained composition is characterised by 500 Gy and a dynamic dose response much greater than 500 Gy (7.5% TTC, 25% Pluronic F-127, 50 mmol dm-3 tetrakis). Temporal and spatial stability studies revealed that the TTC-Pluronic gels (7.5% TTC, 25% Pluronic F-127) were stable for more than one week. The addition of compounds boosting the gels' dose performance caused deterioration of the gels' temporal stability but did not impact the stability of the 3D dose distribution. The proposed method of preparation allows for the repeatable manufacture of the gels. There were no differences observed between gels irradiated fractionally and non-fractionally. The TTC-Pluronic dose response might be affected by the radiation source dose rate-this, however, requires further examination.

This work presents an improvement of the VIPARnd ('nd' stands for 'normoxic, double', or VIP) polymer gel dosimeter. The gel composition was altered by increasing the concentration of the monomeric components, N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP) and N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), in co-solvent solutions. The optimal composition (VIPARCT, where 'CT' stands for computed tomography, or VIC) comprised: 17% NVP, 8% MBA, 12% t-BuOH, 7.5% gelatine, 0.007% ascorbic acid, 0.0008% CuSO4 × 5H2O and 0.02% hydroquinone. The following characteristics of VIC were achieved: (i) linear dose range of 0.9_30 Gy, (ii) saturation for radiation doses of over 50 Gy, (iii) threshold dose of about 0.5 Gy, (iv) dose sensitivity of 0.171 Gy-1 s-1, which is roughly 2.2 times higher than that of VIP (for nuclear magnetic resonance measurements). It was also found that VIC is dose- rate-independent, and its dose response does not alter if the radiation source is changed from electrons to photons for external beam radiotherapy. The gel responded similarly to irradiation with small changes in radiation energy but was sensitive to larger energy changes. The VIC gel retained temporal stability from 20 h until at least 10 d after irradiation, whereas spatial stability was retained from 20 h until at least 6 d after irradiation. The scheme adopted for VIC manufacturing yields repeatable gels in terms of radiation dose response. The VIC was also shown to perform better than VIP using x-ray computed tomography as a readout method; the dose sensitivity of VIC (0.397 HU Gy-1) was 1.5 times higher than that of VIP. Also, the dose resolution of VIC was better than that of VIP in the whole dose range examined.

This work reports results related to the manufacturing and optimisation of a leuco crystal violet (LCV)-Pluronic F-127 radiochromic gel dosimeter suitable for 3D radiotherapy dosimetry. A feature of this gel is that the natural gelatine polymer, which is most often used as a matrix in 3D dosimeters, is substituted with Pluronic F-127 synthetic copolymer (poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(propylene oxide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide). Pluronic F-127 ensures a higher transparency than gelatine, which may be beneficial for optical computed tomography readout, and improves the thermal properties in the temperature range above ~30 °C at which the gelatine physical gel converts to a solution. The optimal composition obtained comprises 2 mM LCV, 4 mM 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenyl-polyethylene glycol (Triton X-100), 17 mM trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) and 25% Pluronic F-127. Its main dose-response features are 4‒150 Gy linear dose range (150 Gy was the maximal dose applied to gels in this work), 0.0070 Gy-1 cm-1 dose sensitivity (derived from absorbance (600 nm) = f (dose) for 6 MeV electrons, 0.88(3) Gy s-1 and 0.0156 Gy-1 cm-1 derived from optical density (Δµ) = f (dose) for 6 MV x-rays, 0.1010 Gy s-1), low initial colour (initial absorbance = 0.0429) and a diffusion coefficient of crystal violet (CV) in LCV-Pluronic of 0.054 ± 0.023 mm2 h-1. Raman spectroscopy was used to characterize LCV-Pluronic chemical changes after irradiation. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed that LCV-Pluronic is stable in temperatures between approximately 11 °C and 56 °C. Irradiation of LCV-Pluronic gel impacts on its first sol-gel transition temperature and the thermal effect of this process-both increased with absorbed dose, which might be related to the degradation of Pluronic. LCV-Pluronic is a promising 3D dosimeter for ionising radiation applications. Further work is needed to improve LCV-Pluronic response in the low dose region, and characterize potential effects of pH, temperature during irradiation, and radiation quality/dose rate on dose response characteristics.

A co-polymer of poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(propylene oxide)-block-poly(ethylene oxide) (Pluronic F-127, PEO-PPO-PEO) was proposed as a physical gel matrix, substituting gelatine for three-dimensional polymer gel dosimeters and as a matrix for the preparation of new radiochromic gel dosimeters. Two polymer gel dosimeters and seven radiochromic gel dosimeters were obtained with this new matrix. In this review we summarise the main advantages of using Pluronic F-127 for manufacturing radiation dosimeters and the best performing new Pluronic dosimeters.

NVP-containing three-dimensional polymer gel dosimeters for radiotherapy dosimetry have been developed for more than 20 years. There have been 11 main modifications of the originally proposed VIPAR polymer gel dosimeter that altogether have amounted to 12 gel dosimeter formulae. This communication is to summarise the main chemical changes made to the VIPAR dosimeter over these years of research. The newest NVP-polymer gel dosimeters are also introduced.

This work reports on the impact of tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride (THPC) on the properties of a VIC gel dosimeter (VIC is an abbreviated acronym of VIPARCT). THPC was used as a substitute oxygen scavenger in VIC (17% N-vinylpyrrolidone, 8% N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, 12% tert-butyl alcohol, 7.5% gelatine, 0.02% hydroquinone and an oxygen scavenger of 0.007% ascorbic acid and 0.0008% CuSO4 × 5H2O). THPC reduced the gelation time of VIC from hours to minutes. The best composition (VIC-T) contained 14 mM THPC and a reduced gelatine concentration (5%) with respect to VIC, which allowed for gelation in about 3 min. VIC-T was characterised by the same dose sensitivity (0.176 ± 0.003 Gy-1 s-1 for VIC-T and 0.171 ± 0.002 Gy-1 s-1 for VIC), dose threshold (0.5 Gy) and dynamic dose range (0.5‒50 Gy) as VIC, and a lower linear dose range (20 Gy for VIC-T, 30 Gy for VIC) (0.47 T NMR measurements). VIC-T was stable for at least 10 days after irradiation, and 3D dose distribution was stable for over 4 months after irradiation. The dose response of VIC-T was independent of the radiation dose rate, type and energy of radiation for 6 and 15 MV photons and 12 MeV electrons. This is an improvement with respect to VIC which showed a different dose response for 6 MV photons than for 12 MeV electrons and 15 MV photons. Raman spectroscopy showed similarity in the rate of radiation-induced conversion of monomers in VIC and VIC-T, indicating interaction of THPC with gelatine in VIC-T, and showed ageing of gelatine in both dosimeters. Differential scanning calorimetry showed VIC-T stability at 0 °C-80 °C (VIC: 0 °C‒29.5 °C). The chemical polymerisation and crosslinking of gelatine with THPC is reported, the mechanism of which was analysed in detail. A comparison of N-vinylpyrrolidone-containing dosimeters is presented in this work.

This work seeks to verify multi-shot clinical applications of stereotactic radiosurgery with a Leksell Gamma Knife model C unit employing a polymer gel-MRI based experimental procedure, which has already been shown to be capable of verifying the precision and accuracy of dose delivery in single-shot gamma knife applications. The treatment plan studied in the present work resembles a clinical treatment case of pituitary adenoma using four 8 mm and one 14 mm collimator helmet shots to deliver a prescription dose of 15 Gy to the 50% isodose line (30 Gy maximum dose). For the experimental dose verification of the treatment plan, the same criteria as those used in the clinical treatment planning evaluation were employed. These included comparison of measured and GammaPlan calculated data, in terms of percentage isodose contours on axial, coronal and sagittal planes, as well as 3D plan evaluation criteria such as dose-volume histograms for the target volume, target coverage and conformity indices. Measured percentage isodose contours compared favourably with calculated ones despite individual point fluctuations at low dose contours (e.g., 20%) mainly due to the effect of T2 measurement uncertainty on dose resolution. Dose-volume histogram data were also found in a good agreement while the experimental results for the percentage target coverage and conformity index were 94% and 1.17 relative to corresponding GammaPlan calculations of 96% and 1.12, respectively. Overall, polymer gel results verified the planned dose distribution within experimental uncertainties and uncertainty related to the digitization process of selected GammaPlan output data.

The water equivalence and stable relative energy response of polymer gel dosimeters are usually taken for granted in the relatively high x-ray energy range of external beam radiotherapy based on qualitative indices such as mass and electron density and effective atomic number. However, these favourable dosimetric characteristics are questionable in the energy range of interest to brachytherapy especially in the case of lower energy photon sources such as 103Pd and 125I that are currently utilized. In this work, six representative polymer gel formulations as well as the most commonly used experimental set-up of a LiF TLD detector-solid water phantom are discussed on the basis of mass attenuation and energy absorption coefficients calculated in the energy range of 10 keV-10 MeV with regard to their water equivalence as a phantom and detector material. The discussion is also supported by Monte Carlo simulation results. It is found that water equivalence of polymer gel dosimeters is sustained for photon energies down to about 60 keV and no corrections are needed for polymer gel dosimetry of 169Yb or 192Ir sources. For 125I and 103Pd sources, however, a correction that is source-distance dependent is required. Appropriate Monte Carlo results show that at the dosimetric reference distance of 1 cm from a source, these corrections are of the order of 3% for 125I and 2% for 103Pd. These have to be compared with corresponding corrections of up to 35% for 125I and 103Pd and up to 15% even for the 169Yb energies for the experimental set-up of the LiF TLD detector-solid water phantom.

The polyGeVero® software package was elaborated for calculations of 3D dosimetry data such as the polymer gel dosimetry. It comprises four workspaces designed for: i) calculating calibrations, ii) storing calibrations in a database, iii) calculating dose distribution 3D cubes, iv) comparing two datasets e.g. a measured one with a 3D dosimetry with a calculated one with the aid of a treatment planning system. To accomplish calculations the software was equipped with a number of tools such as the brachytherapy isotopes database, brachytherapy dose versus distance calculation based on the line approximation approach, automatic spatial alignment of two 3D dose cubes for comparison purposes, 3D gamma index, 3D gamma angle, 3D dose difference, Pearson's coefficient, histograms calculations, isodoses superimposition for two datasets, and profiles calculations in any desired direction. This communication is to briefly present the main functions of the software and report on the speed of calculations performed by polyGeVero®.

The VIPAR polymer gel dosimeter formulation was modified in an effort to eliminate the need for deoxygenation in the manufacturing procedure while preserving its favorable characteristics of dose rate independence and a wide dose response range. Aiming at an adequate dose sensitivity and the extension of dose response in the low dose region to facilitate the dose verification of radiosurgery applications where narrow beams are employed and steep dose gradients are involved, the new formulation consists of 8% N-Vinylpyrrolidone, 7.5% gelatine, 4% N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide, as well as of 0.0008% Copper Sulfate and 0.007% Ascorbic Acid as oxygen scavengers. To study the dose–R2 response, dose rate dependence and ``edge effect'' behaviour of the new formulation, one batch of two gel filled glass vials was prepared. Before MR Imaging, one vial was irradiated with a brachytherapy source while the other one was irradiated using circular CyberKnife radiation fields of 60, 10, 7.5 and 5 mm in diameter. Results of this study suggest that the new gel dosimeter responds linearly in the dose range of about 3 to 30 Gy, whilst the full dose response range exceeds the maximum delivered dose of 50 Gy. No dose rate dependence was observed for the new gel, while Cyberknife dosimetry results in the form of stereotactic field size and penumbra measurements suggest that the new formulation could be effective in the dose verification of demanding radiosurgery techniques.

Implementation of polymer gel dosimetry in radiotherapy departments calls for: easily manufactured gel dosimeters of required physical-chemical properties, set-up procedures of irradiation, adaptation of three-dimensional scanning procedures and instruments as well as fast tool for calculation of 3D absorbed dose distribution in the polymer gel dosimeters and comparison with another treatment planning system calculated dose distribution. These challenges resulted in several propositions in polymer gel dosimetry area. In this work, however, a summary of results on construction of polymer gel dosimetry software facilitating usually laborious 3D dose distributions data processing is provided.