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1 Endangered plant species may be particularly vulnerable to global change. We investigated differences in the behaviour of the rare calcareous grassland species Gentiana cruciata and Gentianella germanica under ambient (360,ul 1-') and elevated CO2 (600 1l l-') in a field experiment. 2 Rosettes of G. germanica and G. cruciata were planted into grassland plots with 29 other plant species. Each of the 30 rosettes of G. germanica in a plot represented a different maternal seed family, whereas G. cruciata was grown from a mixture of seeds from one field site. After overwintering, eight of the 12 plots were equipped with open-top chambers, four of which were run at ambient and four at elevated CO2 concentrations; the remaining four plots were left without chambers. 3 CO2 concentration did not significantly affect growth and survival of G. cruciata. Rosette diameter increased by 70% over 1 year. 4 Overall only 13.6% of transplanted G. germanica survived for 1 year. Elevated CO2 reduced survival by 57% (this reduction was only marginally significant due to large variation between plots) and seed set by 46%. Both these effects appeared to be mediated by competition from other species since survival and seed set were negatively correlated with total plot biomass at the time of fastest growth in June 1994 and at the time of fruit set in October, respectively. Compared with plots under ambient C02, population growth rate (based on survival and reproduction) was reduced by 56% under elevated CO2. 5 There were no significant effects of elevated CO2 on leaf characters in either species. 6 The sugar concentration of the nectar of G. germanica was increased by 36% under elevated C02, but its composition remained unchanged. 7 Significant interactions between the effects of seed family and CO2 concentration on demographic parameters in G. germanica indicated large genetic variation in the response to elevated C02, which represents evolutionary potential. Although predictions based on mean responses are therefore unreliable, the majority of genotypes reacted negatively to elevated C02, suggesting that competitive exclusion and extinction of G. germanica would occur at many sites before populations could adapt to increased concentrations of CO2.

Some morphological characters further biological functions in the Marchantiales but do not appear to be essential for survival, reproduction and dispersal. Some others, seemingly disadvantageous, do not prevent the continued existence of these plants. Adaptation to ecological niches is principally linked to biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell content that are not expressed in morphology. Our definition of biological significance will be the role of morphological characters in the various manifestations of life of an individual and its responses to the environment, thus including all phenomena that permit life in normal conditions, and survival when these conditions become difficult. To the morphological characters we assign not only variations in form and dimension of the different elements of the gametophyte and the sporophyte, but also of their structure. The Marchantiales include about thirty morphologically well-defined genera. Only two, Marchantia and Riccia, contain a large number of species, probably a hundred each. At least sixteen genera are monotypic. The others are small, with less than twenty species. The Marchantiales exist on all continents, under all climates, but the species, and to an even greater extent, the individuals, are especially well represented in areas with Med- iterranean or semi-arid climates. In the true Mediterranean, about 85% of the hepatic species belong to this group while about 12% of the local hepaticological flora in temperate Europe, 4-9% in the Arctic and Antarctic, and 2-3% in the humid tropics are Marchan- tiales. In those Mediterranean deserts in which mean annual rainfall reaches only 100-200 mm and in which no other hepatics can subsist, we still found thirteen Marchantialean species. They thus appear particularly well adapted to regions with a long, hot, dry season. The distribution areas of most of the species are restricted or disjunctive. Riccia som- mieri Lev., for instance, seems to be limited to the Mediterranean. Riccia crustata Trab. inhabits this same area but also western Siberia and southeastern Australia-no interme- diate localities are known. Many species are rare: for Exormotheca pustulosa Mitt., six localities are recorded in the Mediterranean area, including only one in France, there limited to less than a square meter. However, some cosmopolitan species found in many disrupted habitats exist among the Marchantiales, for instance, Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dum. and Marchantia polymorpha L., but they are exceptions.

The Old World hepatic Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dum. has become widely naturalized in coastal California from the Los Angeles area to within 100 miles of the Oregon border. It is characteristically found in mesic, summer-dry habitats. Gametangia are freely produced, but sporophytes are rare, apparently because they require moisture throughout the summer to mature. Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dum. is an Old World hepatic that has long been known to grown out of doors in California (Howe 1899). However, although it has acquired an extensive naturalized range since the time Howe expressed surprise at finding it "at some distance from any greenhouse" at one San Francisco locality, there are no recent descriptions of its distribution in the state (Benson-Evans & Hughes 1955), and recent manuals (Frye & Clark 1937; Schuster 1953; Conard & Redfearn 1979) present rather misleading accounts of its occurrence. It therefore seemed worthwhile to publish a more accurate account of its distribution and ecology. The distribution of the species in natural (i.e. nonanthropogenic) habitats may be conveniently summarized by a list of representative specimens. Collections cited only by number are those of the author. These are in my personal herbarium and in other herbaria named. In addition to the areas cited below, the species is present but not common in the San Gabriel Mountains of Los Angeles County (ca. 34'N) according to B. Mishler (pers. comm.). Representative specimens.-U.S.A. CALIFORNIA. SANTA CRUZ CO.: 1 km S of Felton, 122'04'W, 37003'N, B-80. SAN MATEO CO.: 1 km N of La Honda, 122'16'W, 37'20'N, B-29; 8 km SW of Palo Alto, 122014'W, 37024'N, Thomas 18412A (CAS); Woodside, 122017'W, 37027'N, 1336 (DAV); Pacifica, 122028'W, 37036'N, B479. SONOMA CO.: 7 km W of Forestville, 122057'W, 38028'N, 811A (DAV, CAS). MENDOCINO CO.: 8 km W of Boonville, 123026'W, 39004'N, 844 (DAV). HUMBOLDT CO.: 3 km N of Miranda, 1230 ca. 48'W, 400 ca. 15'N, Norris 48065 (HSC); ca. 7 km SE of Arcata, 124002'W, 40050'N, 862 (DAV). Lunularia is rather common in natural habitats in northern and central California. It often forms extensive mats on soil, especially thin soil over rock (rarely wood), occasionally on deeply shaded banks but usually near the high-water mark along intermittent streams, where the brood bodies are disseminated by water following the storms of early winter. It is commonest in the drier inland parts of the coastal redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) forest, but is occasionally found in coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) forest. Gametangia are produced freely in spring and early summer, and both sexes are well represented and not infrequently mixed. Sporophytes are rare, however, having been collected only three times in native vegetation (Thomas 18412A; Whittemore B-29, 1336, above). The collections were made in October and December, and the rarity of sporophytes may be due to a requirement for moisture throughout the summer for them to mature; the species is normally found only in summer-dry habitats, possibly because it is unable to compete with 007-2745/82/320-321 $ 2.25/0 This content downloaded from 157.55.39.104 on Sun, 19 Jun 2016 06:08:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 1982] WHITTEMORE: LUNULARIA IN CALIFORNIA 321 the native bryophytes found in continuously damp areas. Sporophytes seem to be found only in small islands of dampness in otherwise summer-dry habitats. Reports of a predominantly Southern California distribution in recent manuals (Schuster 1953; Conard & Redfearn 1979) apparently originate with the statement by Frye and Clark (1937) that the species is fertile only in the vicinity of San Diego. However, they cite no specimens from south of San Francisco, and cite only the paper by Shinn (1902) reporting sporophytic plants from a lath-house in Niles, Alameda County, some 1500 km north of San Diego. (Frye and Clark apparently overlooked the report of Evans 1923 of sporophytes from a garden in Mill Valley, Marin County, ca. 38?N.) Thus, the San Diego report should be considered questionable as a non-anthropogenic station, unless confirming specimens can be located. I have recently had the privilege of examining an extensive series of collections from various parts of San Diego County made by Lloyd Stark, and Lunularia was not represented, although it is found in the city of San Diego (as in most parts of the state) in irrigated gardens (Stark, pers. comm.). I would like to acknowledge the help of Lloyd Stark and Brent Mishler, who provided data on the occurrence of the species in Southern California; the staff of CAS, who provided facilities for study at their institution; and especially Dr. Daniel Norris, in whose laboratory part of this work was carried out. Benson-Evans, K. & J. G. Hughes. 1955. The physiology of sexual reproduction in Lunularia cruciata (L.) Dum. Transactions of the British Bryological Society 2: 513-522. Conard, H. S. & P. L. Redfearn, Jr. 1979. How to Know the Mosses and Liverworts. Second edition. Wm. C. Brown Company, Dubuque, Iowa. Evans, A. W. 1923. Notes on the Hepaticae of California. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Series 4, 13(6): 111-130. Frye, T. C. & L. Clark. 1937. Hepaticae of North America. Volume 1. University of Washington Publications in Biology 6: 1-162. Howe, M. A. 1899. The Hepaticae and Anthocerotes of California. Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club 7: 1-208. Schuster, R. M. 1953. Boreal Hepaticae, a manual of the liverworts of Minnesota and adjacent regions. American Midland Naturalist 49(2): 257-684. Shinn, J. G. 1902. Lunularia cruciata in fruit. THE BRYOLOGIST 5: 76-77. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.104 on Sun, 19 Jun 2016 06:08:02 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

We describe herein a new electrophoretic procedure for the comparative analysis of AGPs. It employs glyoxyl agarose, which enables AGPs to be 'fixed" by crosslinking them to the gels, and 3-glucosyl Yariv reagent as a diagnostic stain. The AGPs offour widely separated species, Scapania nemorosa (L.) Dum., Gymnocolea inflata (Huds.) Dum., Jungermannia leiantha Grolle, and Plagiochila arctica Bryhn & Kaal., were compared by this procedure. The pattern of AGPs for each species was distinctly different. Arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) constitute a class of hydroxyproline-containing proteins that ap- pear to be widespread, if not ubiquitous, among land plants. Clarke et al. (1978) detected AGPs in representatives of all phyla of plants, including Lun- ularia cruciata (L.) Dum. in the Bryophyta. Sub- sequently, AGPs were reported to be present in nine additional species of hepatics (Basile & Basile 1987). The ten species in which AGPs were detected thus far belong to ten families, four of the seven orders, and both of the two subclasses (i.e., Jungermanni- idae and the Marchantiidae) that compose the class Hepaticae. It seems highly probable then that AGPs are constituents of all hepatics and have some basic biological function. The research of Clarke and co- workers (Clarke & Knox 1978; Clarke et al. 1978, 1979; Gleeson & Clarke 1979; van Holst & Clarke 1986) suggests that at least one of the functions of AGPs may be related to their capacity to serve as determinants of cell, tissue, organ, and species iden- tity. The probability that AGPs are ubiquitous in the hepatics and the possibility that they serve as de- terminants of identity-nonidenity at many levels of organization suggest that this class of macromole- cules may be ideally suited for chemosystematic studies. Studies conducted with seed plants (An- derson & Dea 1969; Bobalek & Johnson 1983; Jer- myn & Yeow 1975) support this idea. In these stud- ies, the relative proportions of amino acids or

New distributional records and notes on the ecology of several species of Lutzomyia sand flies are given. In Texas, L. anthophora (Addis) is closely associated with the Neotoma woodrat. L. texana (Dampf) was commonly taken in armadillo burrows. L. vexator occidentis (Fairchild and Hertig) and L. cruciata (Coq.), a man-biter, were also collected in Texas. L. cubensis (Fairchild and Trapido), previously known only from Cuba, L. cruciata and L. vexator vexator (Coq.) are herein reported from Florida.

From October, 1929, to March, 1930, and during the spring of 1931, first year tadpoles of Rana clamitans from a goldfish hatchery near Cincinnati, Ohio, were observed to be infected by a new species of Copepoda for which the name Lernaea ranae is proposed. The genus Lernaea was erected by Linnaeus in 1758 to contain three species, two of which, L. cyprinacea and L. salmnonea, are parasitic in fresh-water fishes, while the third, L. asellina, occurs in marine fish. L. salmronea and L. asellina have since been named types of the genera Salmonicola and Medesicaste respectively, leaving L. cyprinacea as type of the genus Lernaea. Excellent historical and critical reviews of the genus and of the family Lernaeidae as well as bibliographic references to earlier papers are contained in papers by Wilson (1917, 1918). Subsequently, the species L. haplocephala, described by Cunningham in 1914 from Lake Tanganyika and the Nile, was reported from the Congo basin by Wilson (1920a) and from the Cameroun by Brian (1927). Leigh-Sharpe (1925) described L. elegans from the buccal cavity of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. The life history of this species was later studied by Nakai (1927) and a description of its internal anatomy and effects upon the host was published by Matsui and Kumada (1928). Wilson (1928) reported a new species, L. composita, from Malapterurus electricus from the Nile. The first species reported from the United States was L. cruciata, described by Le Sueur in 1824 from Lake Erie. Kr0yer in 1863 described L. catostomi and L. pomotidis from the Mississippi River. Kellicott in 1881 added L. tortua from New York and L. pectoralis from Michigan. Wilson (1916) described two species, L. tenuis and L. variabilis from Fairport, Iowa; he also reported the occurrence of L. pomotidis and L. tortua at Fairport, Iowa, and listed L. cruciata from Fairport, Iowa, Scott, Arkansas, and Black Creek, North Carolina. Two new species, L. anolmala from North Carolina and L. dolabrodes from Wisconsin, were added by Wilson (1918). He later (1920) proposed the name L. insolens for L. anomala, preoccupied. In a brief preliminary paper, Enders and Rifenburgh (1928) reported an unnamed species of Lernaea parasitic in goldfish from Indiana. In addition to the species cited, several others have been recorded, particularly by early