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Introduction Breasts are organs found in both male and female representatives. The main building blocks of the breast are fatty tissue and glandular tissue. As far as women are concerned, breast cancer is most commonly found in the upper outer quadrant. It is one of the most common cancers among women worldwide and is therefore an important public health issue. The latest data indicate that the problem of breast cancer currently affects more than 10% of women from all over the world. Importantly, it is the second most common cause of cancer-related death among women, after lung cancer. There are many factors that influence the prevalence rate of breast cancer. In general, they might be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable factors. In the following review, the emphasis will be put on the impact of non-modifiable factors on breast cancer risk and the strength of their impact. Factors that will be discussed include age, gender, ethnic and racial background, family history and genetic factors, pregnancy and breastfeeding. Material and Methods This review was based on available data collected in the PubMed and Google Scholar database, using following keywords: “Breast Cancer”, “Risk factors of Breast Cancer” and “Epidemiology of Breast Cancer”. Conclusion Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in women worldwide. In recent years, we have observed an increase in the incidence of this cancer among female representatives. The development of this cancer is influenced by many factors, which can be divided into two main groups: modifiable factors and non-modifiable factors. Importantly, it is advisable to undertake new research and initiatives to better understand the etiology of this disease and the factors affecting its development.

Proper and healthy sleep is an element of everyday life necessary for the proper functioning of the body. Unfortunately, a large part of humanity cannot experience proper rest, due to sleep disorders such as insomnia, restless leg syndrome, obturative sleep apnea and other diseases that complicate sleep. There are not many ways to treat sleep disorders and their use is often associated with difficulties in everyday life and side effects of the used methods. Work on this subject is still ongoing, with time there are more and more new possibilities and different, unconventional applications of substances discovered long ago. Plants containing cannabinoids have been known to mankind since ancient times. And this cannabinoids can have huge importance and contribute to the treatment and prevention of sleep disorders. Studies on the impact of these substances on sleep and sleep disorders are limited, which leads to the fact that in many countries their use is still prohibited. And therefore undertaking research on this topic requires a lot of effort. However, the data that has been collected so far on the subject of the influence of cannabinoids on sleep disorders carry optimistic information. Cannabinoids in the correct doses and ratio as to the content of individual subgroups can bring relief to people suffering from lack of proper sleep. However, the negative effects of these substances should not be forgotten. Chronic use, too high doses or improper application can have a negative impact on the quality of sleep.

HPV infection is one of the most common viral infection of the female and male reproductive tract worldwide. Most of the human papillomavirus infections cause no symptoms and go away on their own. Some infections develop into persistent infection, which can lead to the development of cancer of the cervix, anogenital, oral cavity and pharynx.In this paper, we focused on cervical cancer, which is the second most common cancer in the world among women. More than 300,000 women died from this cancer in 2020. The invention and introduction of prophylactic HPV vaccines has played a significant role in reducing the number of viral infections, thus reducing the incidence of benign and malignant diseases caused by them and the mortality resulting from them. There are three vaccines on the pharmaceutical marketfor prevention of specific HPV infection. They are: a bivalent vaccine Cervarix, a tetravalent vaccine Gardasil and a nonavalent vaccine Gardasil 9. These vaccines are safe because they do not contain an attenuated virus particle, but their production is based on a virus-like particle of the main capsid protein L1-VLP. Gardasil 9 targets nine HPV types andcomparing to the other two vaccines it is the most effective at preventing the development of preinvasive cervical cancer. WHO recommends administering them to girls aged 9 to 14 in a two-dose schedule or from 15 years of age in a three-dose schedule. The side effects of the above-mentioned vaccines were mostly associated with a cutaneous reactions around the site of injection (pain, redness, swelling), and some people also experienced systemic symptoms such as a headache, a fever, vomiting, a dizziness, muscle pain and a diarrhea. The following article is an analysis of the current knowledge on the effectiveness and safety of prophylactic HPV vaccines based on publications available in the Pubmed and Google Scholar databases.

Introduction and purpose: Ogilvie's syndrome is an acute pseudo-obstruction of the colon characterized by massive dilatation of the large intestine without mechanical obstruction. The aim of this publication is to review publications and case reports concerning this disease and therapeutic management. A brief description of the state of knowledge: Ogilvie's syndrome was first described in 1948. The assumed pathogenesis of the disease is increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and/or decreased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system. Most often it concerns hospitalized patients, in a serious general condition, after major injuries, operations, and pregnant or postpartum women. The importance of viral infections in the pathogenesis, including COVID-19 in recent years, is also indicated. It is important to eliminate possible organic causes of obstruction and to assess the diameter of the dilated bowel. Therapeutic options include conservative treatment, pharmacological treatment with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, endoscopic bowel decompression and surgical treatment. Lack of medical intervention can lead to ischemia and intestinal perforation. Conclusion: Ogilvie's syndrome is a rare condition in which complications can be minimized with proper assessment, care and treatment. The progress of pharmacological and endoscopic therapy allows to reduce the need for surgical intervention, and thus - the patient's unnecessary burden.

Introduction The prostate gland is a small reproductive organ found in men. It consists of 3 zones: central, peripheral and transitional. The most common localization of prostate cancer in elderly men is the peripheral zone. Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in men. It ranks second in terms of incidence and fifth in terms of lethality among men worldwide. There are many factors that contribute to the development of prostate cancer in men. We can divide them into two large groups: genetic factors and environmental factors. These include, among others: older age, ethnicity / race, positive family history, genetic predisposition, type of diet, obesity, smoking or higher height. Each of the above factors has a different impact on the incidence of prostate cancer, which has been demonstrated on the basis of the results of numerous studies and will be summarized in the following review. Materiał and Methods This review was based on available data collected in the PubMed database, using the following keywords: „Prostate Cancer”, „Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer” and „Risk factors of Prostate Cancer”. Conclusions Prostate cancer is a serious problem affecting men all over the world. Every year we observe an increasing incidence of this disease, which makes prostate cancer one of the most common cancers affecting men. There are many factors affecting the occurrence of this cancer, but it is extremely difficult to study their exact impact on the development of prostate cancer. Therefore, new initiatives and research should be undertaken to broadly understand the etiology and risk factors of this cancer.

Introduction Meyer-Rokitanski-Küster-Hauser syndrome, also reffered to as Müllerian aplasia, is a congenital disorder characterized by agenesis or hypoplasia of the uterus and upper part of the vagina in female with normal female karyotype (46,XX). In these women the external genitalia have a normal structure and their internal endocrine organs function properly. Most often, this syndrome is diagnosed in adolescence due to primary amenorrhea. Material and methods This review was based on available data collected in the PubMed data base and Google Scholar data and published between 2011 and 2021. The research was done by looking through keywords such as:“Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome”, “MRKH syndrome”, “uterine agenesis” and “primary amenorrhea”, "vaginal agenesis", "uterus transplantation". Conclusions Recent scientific achievements have shown how much can be changed in the lives of patients with MRKH syndrome. It should be remembered that this is a disease that needs treatment by specialists in many fields. Treatment should include not only medical side of problem but also should take care of psychical side of patients life. During the last 10 years several advances have been made in MRKH syndrome research, especially within the fields of genetics, non-surgical management, and uterus transplantation as the first available fertility treatment.

Tomaszewski Michał, Kozioł Maciej, Kozioł Jadwiga, Zadrąg-Olko Agnieszka, Tomaszewski Andrzej, Łuczyk Robert. Wartość diagnostyczna MSCT w chorobie niedokrwiennej serca u pacjentów z dodatnią próbą wysiłkową = Diagnostic value of MSCT in ischemic heart disease in patients with positive exercise test. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;6(5):341-348. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.53148 http://ojs.ukw.edu.pl/index.php/johs/article/view/3529 The journal has had 7 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. Part B item 755 (23.12.2015). 755 Journal of Education, Health and Sport eISSN 2391-8306 7 © The Author (s) 2016; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Received: 05.05.2016. Revised 25.05.2016. Accepted: 25.05.2016. WARTOŚĆ DIAGNOSTYCZNA MSCT W CHOROBIE NIEDOKRWIENNEJ SERCA U PACJENTÓW Z DODATNIĄ PRÓBĄ WYSIŁKOWĄ Diagnostic value of MSCT in ischemic heart disease in patients with positive exercise test Michał Tomaszewski1, Maciej Kozioł2, Jadwiga Kozioł1, Agnieszka Zadrąg-Olko3, Andrzej Tomaszewski1, Robert Łuczyk4 1Klinika Kardiologii, Samodzielny Publiczny Szpital Kliniczny nr 4 w Lublinie 2Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie 3Oddział Onkologii Klinicznej, Samodzielny Publiczny Szpital Wojewódzki im. Papieża Jana Pawła II, Zamość 4Katedra Interny z Zakładem Pielęgniarstwa Internistycznego Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Lublinie Abstract Introduction: The ECG stress test remains the most popular non-invasive diagnostic tool in coronary vascular disease (CVD) diagnostics. However, it is characterized by low sensitivity (50%), thus, it was marginalized in the latest ESC guidelines for myocardial revascularization. The development of imaging techniques provided medicine with new methods of non-invasive diagnostics for coronary CVD. One of those techniques is multislice computed tomography (MSCT), which sufficient time and spatial resolution allows a reliable assessment of the coronary arteries. High negative predictive value of this method is particularly important, as it allows the waiver of further conservative treatment, tests and invasive procedures. Aim: The aim of the study was to determine the usefulness of MSCT in CVD diagnostics in patients with positive ECG stress test. Methods: The study was conducted on 100 consecutive patients (65% females, mean age 55 ± 8,9 years) with positive ECG stress test result. All of the patients underwent a CT scan of coronary arteries on 64 row CT. The retrospective analysis was based on the data obtained from the referrals issued by doctors of cardiology clinics. Analyzed parameters were: age, sex, BMI, the character of a referral (stable, urgent, sudden), blood pressure, heart rate and CCS class of a patient. Results: Most (84%) of the patients with positive result of ECG stress test, had no significant changes in their coronary arteries, only 16% had advanced changes. Statistically significant correlations between age, sex, indications for diagnostics and diagnosis were proven. Also, the correlation between Calcium Score and diagnosis was demonstrated. Conclusion: Conducting an MSCT imaging in patients with positive ECG stress test can lower the number of patients referred for an invasive treatment. Key words: CVD, coronary vascular disease, ECG stress test, MSCT. Abstrakt Wstęp: Elektrokardiograficzna próba wysiłkowa pozostaje najpopularniejszym nieinwazyjnym narzędziem w diagnostyce choroby niedokrwiennej serca. Ze względu na swoją niską czułość została ona zmarginalizowana w najnowszych wytycznych ESC dotyczących rewaskularyzacji mięśnia sercowego. Rozwój technik obrazowania dostarczył jednak nowych metod obrazowania naczyń wieńcowych. Jedną z tych metod jest wielorzędowa tomografia komputerowa (MSCT), charakteryzująca się wystarczającą rozdzielczością czasową i przestrzenną, by możliwa była wiarygodna ocena naczyń wieńcowych. Szczególnie ważna jest wysoka ujemna wartość predykcyjna tej metody, która pozwala na uniknięcie niepotrzebnych dalszych badań czy inwazyjnych zabiegów. Cel badania: Celem badania było ustalenie wartości MSCT w diagnostyce choroby niedokrwiennej serca u pacjentów z dodatnią próbą wysiłkową. Materiały i metody: Badanie przeprowadzono wśród 100 kolejnych pacjentów (65% kobiet, średni wiek 55± 8,9 lat) z dodatnim wynikiem elektrokardiograficznej próby wysiłkowej. U wszystkich pacjentów wykonano obrazowanie tętnic wieńcowych za pomocą 64-rzędowego tomografu komputerowego. Retrospektywna analiza opisowa grupy została oparta na informacjach uzyskanych ze skierowań wystawionych przez lekarzy z poradni kardiologicznych na badanie MSCT. Analizowanymi parametrami były: wiek, płeć, BMI, tryb skierowania na badanie (przypadek stabilny, pilny, nagły), ciśnienie krwi, częstość akcji serca oraz klasa CCS do której zakwalifikowano pacjenta. Wyniki: U większości (84%) pacjentów z dodatnim wynikiem próby wysiłkowej badanie MSCT nie wykazało istotnych zmian w tętnicach wieńcowych, tylko u 16% pacjentów stwierdzono zaawansowane zmiany. Udowodniono istotne statystycznie korelacje między wiekiem, płcią i wskazaniem do wykonania badania a ostateczną diagnozą. Wykazano także korelację między wynikiem Calcium Score a diagnozą. Wnioski: Wykonanie badania MSCT u pacjenta z dodatnim wynikiem elektrokardiograficznej próby wysiłkowej może obniżyć liczbę pacjentów kierowanych do leczenia inwazyjnego. Słowa kluczowe: choroba wieńcowa, choroba niedokrwienna serca, elektrokardiograficzna próba wysiłkowa, MSCT.

Introduction: Thanks to development of technology, new noninvasive techniques of coronary arteries evaluation, such as Multislice Computed Tomography (MSCT) were introduced. Nowadays tomographs are characterized by spatial and time resolution sufficient for reliable assessment of coronary arteries. Moreover, the dose of radiation taken by patient was substantially decreased. Two main methods of evaluation were introduced. Examination performed without contrast agent enables quantitive assessment of coronary arteries calcification by so called Agatston score. Another method performed after contrast injection is Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) Goal: This studies purpose was to determine the role of Calcium Score in assessment of Coronary Arteries Disease (CAD) advancement Materials and methods: In this study the results of 100 consecutive patients (45% men, mean age 55 ± 8.9 years) were analyzed. All patients had a positive ECG stress test score. With a 64-row CT scan, coronary artery imaging of all patients was performed. The descriptive analysis of the group was based on information obtained from referrals issued by cardiologists to the MSCT. Analyzed parameters were: age, gender, indication for referral, Calcium Score and final diagnosis. Results: In most cases (84%) of patients with positive ECG stress test score, MSCT excluded significant changes in coronary arteries. Also, the correlation between Calcium Score and sex and diagnosis was proven. Conclusions: MSCT and Calcium Score enables to find patients without significant changes in coronary arteries and positive ECG stress test and to reduce the number of referrals to coronarography.

Tomaszewski Michał, Kozioł Maciej, Kozioł Jadwiga, Zadrąg-Olko Agnieszka, Tomaszewski Andrzej, Łuczyk Robert. Wartość diagnostyczna MSCT w chorobie niedokrwiennej serca u pacjentów z dodatnią próbą wysiłkową = Diagnostic value of MSCT in ischemic heart disease in patients with positive exercise test. Journal of Education, Health and Sport. 2016;6(5):341-348. eISSN 2391-8306. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.53148 http://ojs.ukw.edu.pl/index.php/johs/article/view/3529 The journal has had 7 points in Ministry of Science and Higher Education parametric evaluation. Part B item 755 (23.12.2015). 755 Journal of Education, Health and Sport eISSN 2391-8306 7 © The Author (s) 2016; This article is published with open access at Licensee Open Journal Systems of Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz, Poland Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted, non commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. Received: 05.05.2016. Revised 25.05.2016. Accepted: 25.05.2016. WARTOŚĆ DIAGNOSTYCZNA MSCT W CHOROBIE NIEDOKRWIENNEJ SERCA U PACJENTÓW Z DODATNIĄ PRÓBĄ WYSIŁKOWĄ Diagnostic value of MSCT in ischemic heart disease in patients with positive exercise test Michał Tomaszewski1, Maciej Kozioł2, Jadwiga Kozioł1, Agnieszka Zadrąg-Olko3, Andrzej Tomaszewski1, Robert Łuczyk4 1Klinika Kardiologii, Samodzielny Publiczny Szpital Kliniczny nr 4 w Lublinie 2Uniwersytet Medyczny w Lublinie 3Oddział Onkologii Klinicznej, Samodzielny Publiczny Szpital Wojewódzki im. Papieża Jana Pawła II, Zamość 4Katedra Interny z Zakładem Pielęgniarstwa Internistycznego Wydział Nauk o Zdrowiu Uniwersytetu Medycznego w Lublinie Abstract Introduction: The ECG stress test remains the most popular non-invasive diagnostic tool in coronary vascular disease (CVD) diagnostics. However, it is characterized by low sensitivity (50%), thus, it was marginalized in the latest ESC guidelines for myocardial revascularization. The development of imaging techniques provided medicine with new methods of non-invasive diagnostics for coronary CVD. One of those techniques is multislice computed tomography (MSCT), which sufficient time and spatial resolution allows a reliable assessment of the coronary arteries. High negative predictive value of this method is particularly important, as it allows the waiver of further conservative treatment, tests and invasive procedures. Aim: The aim of the study was to determine the usefulness of MSCT in CVD diagnostics in patients with positive ECG stress test. Methods: The study was conducted on 100 consecutive patients (65% females, mean age 55 ± 8,9 years) with positive ECG stress test result. All of the patients underwent a CT scan of coronary arteries on 64 row CT. The retrospective analysis was based on the data obtained from the referrals issued by doctors of cardiology clinics. Analyzed parameters were: age, sex, BMI, the character of a referral (stable, urgent, sudden), blood pressure, heart rate and CCS class of a patient. Results: Most (84%) of the patients with positive result of ECG stress test, had no significant changes in their coronary arteries, only 16% had advanced changes. Statistically significant correlations between age, sex, indications for diagnostics and diagnosis were proven. Also, the correlation between Calcium Score and diagnosis was demonstrated. Conclusion: Conducting an MSCT imaging in patients with positive ECG stress test can lower the number of patients referred for an invasive treatment. Key words: CVD, coronary vascular disease, ECG stress test, MSCT. Abstrakt Wstęp: Elektrokardiograficzna próba wysiłkowa pozostaje najpopularniejszym nieinwazyjnym narzędziem w diagnostyce choroby niedokrwiennej serca. Ze względu na swoją niską czułość została ona zmarginalizowana w najnowszych wytycznych ESC dotyczących rewaskularyzacji mięśnia sercowego. Rozwój technik obrazowania dostarczył jednak nowych metod obrazowania naczyń wieńcowych. Jedną z tych metod jest wielorzędowa tomografia komputerowa (MSCT), charakteryzująca się wystarczającą rozdzielczością czasową i przestrzenną, by możliwa była wiarygodna ocena naczyń wieńcowych. Szczególnie ważna jest wysoka ujemna wartość predykcyjna tej metody, która pozwala na uniknięcie niepotrzebnych dalszych badań czy inwazyjnych zabiegów. Cel badania: Celem badania było ustalenie wartości MSCT w diagnostyce choroby niedokrwiennej serca u pacjentów z dodatnią próbą wysiłkową. Materiały i metody: Badanie przeprowadzono wśród 100 kolejnych pacjentów (65% kobiet, średni wiek 55± 8,9 lat) z dodatnim wynikiem elektrokardiograficznej próby wysiłkowej. U wszystkich pacjentów wykonano obrazowanie tętnic wieńcowych za pomocą 64-rzędowego tomografu komputerowego. Retrospektywna analiza opisowa grupy została oparta na informacjach uzyskanych ze skierowań wystawionych przez lekarzy z poradni kardiologicznych na badanie MSCT. Analizowanymi parametrami były: wiek, płeć, BMI, tryb skierowania na badanie (przypadek stabilny, pilny, nagły), ciśnienie krwi, częstość akcji serca oraz klasa CCS do której zakwalifikowano pacjenta. Wyniki: U większości (84%) pacjentów z dodatnim wynikiem próby wysiłkowej badanie MSCT nie wykazało istotnych zmian w tętnicach wieńcowych, tylko u 16% pacjentów stwierdzono zaawansowane zmiany. Udowodniono istotne statystycznie korelacje między wiekiem, płcią i wskazaniem do wykonania badania a ostateczną diagnozą. Wykazano także korelację między wynikiem Calcium Score a diagnozą. Wnioski: Wykonanie badania MSCT u pacjenta z dodatnim wynikiem elektrokardiograficznej próby wysiłkowej może obniżyć liczbę pacjentów kierowanych do leczenia inwazyjnego. Słowa kluczowe: choroba wieńcowa, choroba niedokrwienna serca, elektrokardiograficzna próba wysiłkowa, MSCT.

Introduction: Thanks to development of technology, new noninvasive techniques of coronary arteries evaluation, such as Multislice Computed Tomography (MSCT) were introduced. Nowadays tomographs are characterized by spatial and time resolution sufficient for reliable assessment of coronary arteries. Moreover, the dose of radiation taken by patient was substantially decreased. Two main methods of evaluation were introduced. Examination performed without contrast agent enables quantitive assessment of coronary arteries calcification by so called Agatston score. Another method performed after contrast injection is Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) Goal: This studies purpose was to determine the role of Calcium Score in assessment of Coronary Arteries Disease (CAD) advancement Materials and methods: In this study the results of 100 consecutive patients (45% men, mean age 55 ± 8.9 years) were analyzed. All patients had a positive ECG stress test score. With a 64-row CT scan, coronary artery imaging of all patients was performed. The descriptive analysis of the group was based on information obtained from referrals issued by cardiologists to the MSCT. Analyzed parameters were: age, gender, indication for referral, Calcium Score and final diagnosis. Results: In most cases (84%) of patients with positive ECG stress test score, MSCT excluded significant changes in coronary arteries. Also, the correlation between Calcium Score and sex and diagnosis was proven. Conclusions: MSCT and Calcium Score enables to find patients without significant changes in coronary arteries and positive ECG stress test and to reduce the number of referrals to coronarography.