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The paper posits that Urdu is a naturally heteroglossic or polyphonic language which was invariably exploited by its white colonizers to suit different administrative and political purposes. A historical overview of Urdu is thus taken to explore its debatable status as an indigenous language, its multiple roles and titles during its long history and its exploitive use during the British Raj. Bakhtin's linguistic theory of Heteroglossia is used as a framework for analyzing data taken from two sources: The "Glossary of the British Raj" and "Kipling's glossary of Hindustani-Urdu-Hindi words". The sample consisted of words chosen to reflect three identities of Urdu during the British rule: postcolonial, functional, and oriental. The findings revealed Urdu's natural tendency to adapt to roles that are diverse in their range and import, for which reason it (Urdu) cannot be restricted to a regional identity. A similar approach is used in analyzing the language's status during the British Raj, a period in which its versatility is best expressed through the diverse uses the colonizers employed it for: a lingua franca, a functional language, the language of the subaltern and last but not the least, the alluring language of the Orient. The paper offers new perspectives for rediscovering a linguistic phenomenon: the Urdu language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study deals with the molecular systematics of Asian collections of Hebeloma theobrominum and H. mesophaeum which have not been previously reported from any Himalayan part of the world, and are new to Pakistan. Both were identified using morpho-anatomical and molecular characterization. The target rDNA of both species was amplified by using universal fungal primers. In phylogenetic analysis, both species distinctly clustered with their respective groups. These both species have been described first time from Asia using ITS-rDNA barcoding. The sequences of both species were compared with those of same European species from the GenBank. These species clustered with European species in phylogenetic tree proving their cosmopolitan distribution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper posits that Poetry Translation is an unimpeded and uninhibited genre of Translation Studies which allows immense freedom to the translator to perceive and project the source text according to her social, cultural, and moral sensibilities and above all her aesthetic tendencies. This stance is supported through a diachronic and synchronic evaluation of diverse translations of selected passages of Homeric epics: the Iliad and the Odyssey. The research draws upon Eugene Nida's sociolinguistic approach to translation and his concept of Dynamic Equivalence for the interpretation and analysis of the Homeric texts. In doing so, the researcher highlighted the various literary techniques and approaches used by three renowned translators of Homeric epics: George Chapman, Alexander Pope, and Robert Fitzgerald, through a stylistic analysis and explored the socio-cultural factors behind their choice of translation strategies. The findings reiterated the viewpoint that poetry translators over the centuries have adopted fluid approaches to translating poetry in keeping with their individual perceptions regarding the principles that govern the craft of literary translation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the first detailed report on molecular identification of aboveground fruiting body as well as its ectomycorrhiza, Lactarius species, associated with wide host range. Lactarius sanguifluus growing in association with different host trees: Juglans, Populus and Quercus were collected from Galyat, Pakistan along with soil blocks containing plant roots. The genomic DNA was extracted from basidiocarps and roots of different trees. The internal transcribed spacers (ITS) region of rDNA was amplified using forward primer ITS1F and reverse primer ITS4, which generated fragments of 700-750bp. The aboveground sequences showed base similarity more than 99% with L. sanguifluus submitted from Europe (FJ858746, AF249289). The phylogenetic analysis of above and belowground parts of L. sanguifluus showed their clustering in same clade with same species. Sequence data of seven specimens is being published from Pakistan; two belong to epigeous L. sanguifluus (HF559378.1, HF559379.1), four ectomycorrhizal roots; two associated with Quercus incana (HF559374.1, HF559375.1), one associated with Pinus wallichiana (HF559376.1), one associated with Juglans regia (HE615155) and one ectomycorrhizal sequence of L. semisanguifluus (HF559377.1) associated with Q. incana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lepiota acutesquamosa and L. cristata (Basidiomycota, Agaricales) collected from Himalayan moist temperate forests of Pakistan were characterized using internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of rNDA, a fungal molecular marker. The ITS-rDNA of both species was analyzed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The target region when amplified using universal fungal primers (ITS1F and ITS4) generated 650-650bp fragments. Consensus sequences of both species were submitted for initial blast analysis which revealed and confirmed the identification of both species by comparing the sequences of these respective species already present in the GenBank. Sequence of Pakistani collection of L. acutesquamosa matched 99% with sequences of same species (FJ998400) and Pakistani L. cristata matched 97% with its sequences (EU081956, U85327, AJ237628). Further, in phylogenetic analysis both species distinctly clustered with their respective groups. Morphological characters like shape, size and color of basidiomata, basidiospore size, basidial lengths, shape and size of cheilocystidia of both collections were measured and compared. Both these species have been described first time from Pakistan on morph-anatomical and molecular basis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Populus cilliata and P. euramericana grow in Himalayan Moist Temperate forest of Pakistan, Lahore and its adjacent plains, respectively. Both these species were explored to know the ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity associated with their root system. Morpho-anatomically, 18 ectomycorrhizal types were identified growing in two different ecological zones. Moist temperate region was richer as compared to semiarid region as 15 species were found in association with P. cilliata growing there, while only three were found forming mycorrhizae with P. euramericana. The difference in ectomycorrhizal community composition supported the concept that soil nutrients, organic matter, pH, moisture content and temperature are very important factors to facilitate the growth of mycobionts and their association with roots of higher plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]