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Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2023. Sigillographic representation of archimorphs and ideograms as related to the BCCS (Biophysical Cross-Shore Classification System) using distributive vexillology in coastal belt cartographic displays. Journal of Coastal Research, 39(2), 234–245. Charlotte (North Carolina), ISSN 0749-0208. The sigillation (sigilization) process (i.e. creation of flags, signs, symbols, emblems) provides an opportunity to characterize coastal belts via semiotics through rapid visual inspection of satellite imagery. Emblematic depictions of eco-geomorphological units using the Biophysical Cross-Shore Classification System (BCCS) is offered as a semiotic proposal using graphic symbolization based on the development of a unique color scheme for cross-shore archetypes coupled with ideograms that are derived from predefined archimorphs. The resulting sigil formats are amenable to flagging coastal belts in a symbolization that combines color with ideographic displays. Although compliant to larger scale (smaller areas) coastal surveying and mapping efforts, the sigils are most useful in the characterization of smaller scale (larger areas) satellite image views. Derivation of classificatory units at smaller scales requires zoom capabilities to ascertain the dominant archetypes presented in the coastal sigil flags. In addition to the small-scale presentation of coastal belt characteristics as vexillographic overlays on satellite images, the sigillation process allows the amalgamation of colors and ideographs to represent dimorphic and polymorphic sigil combinations, as in the case, for example, of beach-dune (Be-Du) dimorphs or barrier island (beach-dune-wetland-lagoon-wetland; Be-Du-W-L-W) polymorphs. These color-symbol schema allow for a new kind of kinematic coastal classification mapping, where distributive dynamism results in cartographic displays at presentation scales (depending on paper page size) for using the BCCS. These cognitive mapping procedures compliment algorithmic autoclassification via machine interpretation by providing a rapid and simplified means of coastal characterization based on visual ques and cerebral perceptions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2023. Conceptualization of sequential cross-shore eco-geomorphological units in topographic profiles: Introduction and application of coastal belt archimorphs and ideograms as related to the BCCS (Biophysical Cross-Shore Classification System). Journal of Coastal Research, 39(1), 1–17. Charlotte (North Carolina), ISSN 0749-0208. The BCCS (Biophysical Cross-Shore Classification System) is a method of coastal classification based on the concept of using cross-shore eco-geomorphological catenary sequences to define the nature of coastal belts with variable extensions inland and alongshore. The methodology of the BCCS is based on the recognition of cross- and alongshore sequences (Coastal Ecological Sequences, CES) that form overarching catenas (Dominant Catenary Sequences, DCS) when viewed with satellite images in planview. Extension of these concepts to embrace topographic slices across the coast (in a tomographic sense) produces archimorphs that show actual surface (terrestrial and marine) elevations above and below sea level. Based on elevation data from satellite imagery, several repeating profile shapes were concised to a modicum of idealized line-illustrated conceptual shapes that are referred to as ideograms. The ideograms are based on archimorphs, which are the dominant or essential archetypical shapes of eco-geomorphological environments, such as barrier, beach, beach ridge, channel, cliff, coral reef, delta, developed, dune, flat, ice, lagoon, lake, mountain, rock, till, upland, or wetland archetypes. Archimorphs typically combine cross-shore with each other to form polymorphic sequences used to subdivide ideograms into archetype or subarchetype segments. By doing so, a better understanding of spatial linkages between generalized eco-geomorphological units is obtained. Eighteen coastal ideograms are presented in this paper as prospects for stylizing profile shapes to gather immediate conceptualizations of coastal belts. Selected profiles from around the world were constructed to show, in a single illustration, the principal components of cross-shore profiles that include information relating to (but not inclusive of) topographic shape, archimorphs based on elevation data, catenary archimorphic sequences (polymorphs), ideograms based on idealized tomographs, and correlation to the BCCS codifications that include Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) and terrestrial Ecoregions (ERs). This kind of conceptual collage amalgamates diverse types of information into a compact format for easy comprehension of coastal setups in an instantaneous view. These annotated classification profiles can be used for coastal belts the world over and have applications in the biophysical, geographical, managerial, and military sciences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2022. Classification of coastal belts in the Argentine subpolar southeast coast of Tierra del Fuego using the BCCS (Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System). Journal of Coastal Research, 38(5), 908–924. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS) was experimentally applied to the southeast coast of Tierra del Fuego, Argentina, by compartmentalizing the coast into seven discrete coastal belts that retained a degree of homogeneity from 2 km offshore to about 5 km inland. By interpreting satellite imagery, coastal belts were subdivided into cross-shore transects with alongshore spread to produce codified concatenations that characterized specific eco-geomorphological sequences comprising domains. Different types of domains were identified by archetypes that specified a particular Dominant Catenary Sequence (DCS), which in turn was refined by the inclusion of subarchetypes to produce a Coastal Ecological Sequence (CES). The seven coastal belts comprising a 58.5 km stretch of shore contained 39 CES transects that averaged about 1.5 km of shore length, but ranged from 0.8 km to 3.3 km in alongshore stretch. Dominant offshore, inshore, and onshore classificatory units included Rock (R), Beach (Be), and Cliff (Cl) catenas, which were followed inland by Wetland (W), Lake (Lk), Channel (Ch), and Upland (U) archetypical sequences. Delta (De) and Beach Ridge (Br) archetypes were noted as minor features in some cross-shore transects. Common trisequent DCS transects included R-Be-Cl and Be-Cl-U, which subsequently incorporated landward variations with Lagoon (L), Lake (Lk), and Wetland (W) archetypes. Results of this experiment showed that the BCCS comprehended how subpolar periglacial and paraglacial coastal belts dominantly comprised by glacial outwash have ground surface manifestations that are recognizable in satellite imagery by recurring spectral patterns. This cold tundra coastal region is thus largely characterized by rocky offshores and gravelly beaches backed by cliffs (composed of unconsolidated materials) and channeled wetland (peatland) hinterlands with coastal marine lakes and forested uplands. In accordance with the BCCS, this classification can be concised to CES subarchetype code sequences such as Rrr-Besi-Clse-Wmr-Chmd-Lkcm-Ufo. This study demonstrates that codification of cross-shore eco-geomorphological transects using the BCCS provides a shorthand notation for classifying coastal belts in high-latitude regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2022. Identification of domain complexes in the Danube Delta Coastal Belt using the Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS), based on interpretation of satellite imagery. Journal of Coastal Research, 38(1), 1–18. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS) was applied to the Danube Delta on the NW margin of the Black Sea to ascertain whether this method of classification was applicable to extensive low-lying and low-relief wetland coastalscapes. For organizational purposes, the coastal belt study area was broken into four previously recognized delta lobes (Kilia, Sulina, St. George II, and Cosna–Sinoie) and the Chituc Formation (beach ridge plain) because these provided distinctive coastal segments that were manageable for cross-shore classification. The village of Prymors'ke in the Lyman municipality of Ukraine and the onshore Chituc Formation beach ridge strandplain on the southern margin of the delta marked the northern- and southernmost extents of the Danubian classification effort, respectively. Codified cross-shore catenary sequences were based on the occurrence of recurring archetypes (i.e. Barrier, Beach, Beach Ridge, Delta, Developed, Lagoon, and Wetland) that had alongshore extent and could be identified as domains. Sub archetypes were also interpreted and added to the cross-shore sequences to further refine the Danube Delta classification. Because long cross-shore catenary sequences included inland biophysical and anthropogenic units that often differed dramatically from immediate onshore features, the conflated catenas were bifurcated into onshore (seaward) and inland (landward) domains, sections, or branches that were collectively referred to as domain complexes. Extension of cross-shore transects up to 20 km inland to incorporate all salient aspects of the delta provided useful subdivision of delta landscapes. Sixteen cross-shore transects were used to derive 12 domain complexes extending 167.5 km along the Danubian coastal belt that reached from the approximate latitudes of Prymors'ke, Ukraine, in the north to about Corbu in Romania to the south. Classification of the Danube Delta coastal belts showed that it is possible to apply the BCCS to large-area delta regions using extended cross-shore transects with bifurcated catenary sequences that together describe seaward (onshore) and landward (inland) sections of the delta in the form of domain complexes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2021. Alongshore classification and morphometric analysis of developed coastal belts: An example from Uruguay, South America. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(5), 906–922. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Approximately half of the 666-km long Uruguayan coastal belt length is characterized by continuums of developed urban centers that are associated with ports and harbors, residential, recreational, military, shore protection, and/or commercial facilities that occur in association with agricultural pursuits. Modification of the Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS) to include such features of anthropogenic change along with naturally occurring coastalscapes permits classification of developed and undeveloped coastal belts based on interpretation of satellite imagery. Characterization of alongshore domains was based on conjoining archetypes into catenary sequences that typify coastal belts both alongshore and cross-shore. Based on interpretation of satellite imagery acquired from Google Earth Pro, Uruguayan coastal belts were divided into six separate departments (Rocha, Maldonado, Canelones, Montevideo, San Jose, Colonia) and characterized by the alongshore widths of archetypes that extended from offshore to several kilometers inland. Compilation of coastal belt catenas showed that promontories and headlands, which comprise resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks, function as anchor points along the shore and are widely interspersed by sedimentary (littoral) domains that contain mainland and barrier beaches that are backed by beach-dune couplets, wetlands, lagoonal flats, and developed upland archetypes. Typical alongshore super domains, which were concised from cross-shore archetypical consequences, include the following predominant types of sequences: Barrier-Beach-Dune, Beach-Dune-Lagoon, Beach-Dune-Wetland, Beach-Dune-Upland, Beach-Cliff-Upland, Beach-Wetland-Flat-Lagoon, and Rock-Cliff-Upland. Certain archetypes, such as rock and developed, were prevalent throughout the coastal belt codifications with their representative symbolizations appearing in the variable code sequences of domains and super domains. Morphometric analysis tables were also compiled with alongshore lengths of domains and super domains, as well as percentages of individual department and Uruguayan coastal belts. This examination of the Uruguayan coast showed for the first time that the BCCS can characterize anthropogenically developed units with naturally occurring biophysical features. Interpreted cross-shore transects, alongshore domains, and all-encompassing super domains allow for a comprehensive classification and morphometric analysis of offshore, inshore, and onshore components along Uruguay's natural and developed coastal belts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2021. Alongshore classification and morphometric analysis of coastal belts: The state of Oregon, USA. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(2), 238–271. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Classification of the state of Oregon coastal belt (western United States) was based on the interpretation of satellite imagery using the Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS). This seven-county, 480-km stretch was subdivided based on coastal archetypes that formed distinct bio-geomorphological and ecological sequences on both alongshore and cross-shore axes. Shore-parallel and shore-perpendicular units were concomitantly determined by cognitive inspection of satellite images, in which cross-shore archetypical sequences were observed in the first instance to have alongshore spread that could be secondarily codified in terms of alongshore catenas. Because shore-normal transects encompass marine, coastal, and terrestrial environments that have a shore-parallel width, it was possible to extrapolate cross-shore classificatory units into alongshore stretches called domains. Characterization of alongshore domains was based on conjoining archetypes into catenary sequences that typify coastal belts both alongshore and cross-shore from adjacent offshore areas to several kilometers inland. Compilation of coastal belt catenas showed that promontories and headlands, which are composed of resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks, function as anchor points along the shore and are interspersed by sedimentary (littoral) coastal belts that contain mainland and barrier beaches backed by dune, wetland, flat (estuaries), or upland archetypes. A consizement of several alongshore domain catenary sequences within a particular coastal segment thus formed an overarching super domain. Typical alongshore super domains consisted of the following sequences: Barrier-Beach-Dune (Ba-Be-Du), Barrier-Beach-Dune-Wetland (Ba-Be-Du-W), Beach-Dune-Upland (Be-Du-U), Beach-Dune-Wetland (Be-Du-W), Beach-Cliff-Upland (Be-Cl-U), Beach-Wetland-Flat (Be-W-F), and Rock-Cliff-Upland (R-Cl-U). Morphometric analysis of each county allowed the determination of specific characteristics for each super domain (e.g., alongshore length, percentage of the county coastal belt, and percentage of the Oregon coastal belt). Furthermore, archetype morphometrics were calculated to show which cross-shore archetypical features were most prevalent along the state's coastal belt. This examination of the Oregon coast showed that the alongshore classification of coastal belts on a regional scale, which is based on cross-shore biophysical interpretations, offers the opportunity to characterize offshore, inshore, and onshore eco-geomorphological features through the use of super domains and morphometric analysis. This approach to coastal classification thus serves as a blueprint for the comprehensive characterization of coastal belts worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2021. Alongshore classification and super domain delineation of coastal belts based on interpretation of biophysical catenary sequences observed from satellite images. Journal of Coastal Research, 37(1), 1–25. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The cross-shore classification of coastal belts, facilitated by the interpretation of biophysical features from satellite imagery, is an adjunctory approach to traditional alongshore classification procedures. Methods such as the Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS) (Finkl and Makowski, 2020a) and the Coastal Belt Linked Classification (CBLC) (Finkl and Makowski, 2020d) not only provide insight into cross-shore natural ecological variability and zonation, but also emphasize eco-geomorphological linkages so that shore-normal transitions and successions can be delineated and understood. The discernment of numerous cross-shore biophysical transect codifications in a satellite image seascape scene (referred to as either BCCS or CBLC code sequences) results in coastal belt segmenting that identifies offshore, nearshore, inshore, and onshore similarities and differences. This, in turn, can be correlated alongshore by establishing the swath widths of each cross-shore transect as an individual domain. Data integration and interpretation processes are similarly applied as procedural management of geological borehole (well) logs to determine drilling and petrophysical parameters. This study demonstrates that once all individual alongshore domains are interpreted for a specific coastal area, they can be collectively amalgamated and concised to create a universal alongshore super domain for the entire coastal belt. The advantage of constructing a Concised Alongshore Super Domain is that the procedure provides a sagacious and rational basis for swath alongshore classification of coastal belts. This study shows the effective use of this methodology across coastal belts of varying latitudes, as the interpolation of shore-normal ecological sequences validates the cross-shore correlation between transects and can result in a universal alongshore classification process in the form of super domains for coastal belts worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2020. Coastal Belt Linked Classification (CBLC): A system for characterizing the interface between land and sea based on large marine ecosystems, coastal ecological sequences, and terrestrial ecoregions. Journal of Coastal Research, 36(4), 677–693. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The Coastal Belt Linked Classification (CBLC) is a novel approach based on interpretation of satellite images and assimilation of collateral data to characterize coastal belt segments that function as discrete interfaces between land and sea. This method is based on the formulation of concepts derived from the Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS), the worldwide and regional-scale Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) classification, and the global distribution of terrestrial Ecoregions (ER). The coastal belt, a zone that extends across the shore from marine environments to inland terrestrial habitats, has recently been described in terms of cross-shore catenary sequences based on biophysical attributes of geomorphology and ecology. The CBLC formulates a cross-shore coastal classification by conjoining the Dominant Catenary Sequences (DCS) and Coastal Ecological Sequences (CES) with marine (LME) and terrestrial (ER) ecological systems; thus, a linkage is now provided between marine and terrestrial areas across coastal belts that function as transitional succession zones. This study proposes to combine the traditionally separated tripartite marine, coastal, and terrestrial delineations by melding them into a single descriptive code sequence that can be ascertained from interpretation of Google Earth satellite imagery and accessing collateral data via interactive LME and ER online platforms. Development of the CBLC is facilitated by the fact that LME and ER units are codified by numerals that are easily added to the formulated CES as prefixes and suffixes. The resulting combined alphanumeric code brings together a trove of information at different levels of investigation (Levels I – IV) that was heretofore not easily assimilated. This linkage of DCS and CES catenas with marine LME and terrestrial ER units brings added advantage to the interpretation of satellite imagery of the world's coasts, as it allows coastal belts to be viewed within the context of transitional interfaces between connected marine and terrestrial parameters. Recognition of coastal belts as interfacial bridges linking terrestrial and marine ecosystems into one codified descriptor sequence allows for cross-shore transects to be defined in the form of the Coastal Belt Linked Classification (CBLC) and provides an opportunity to fully comprehend the dynamic nature of coastal zones around the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2020. Lateral extrapolation of coastal catenary sequences using the Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS) to create shore-parallel situational zonation mapping units. Journal of Coastal Research, 36(3), 457–471. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS), which uses transects to assess shore-normal ecological and geomorphological successions from offshore to onshore within a coastal belt (Finkl and Makowski, 2020a), also provides a basis for extrapolating cross-shore catenas into shore-parallel units. This paper shows that three-dimensional transects can be parameterized in terms of alongshore breadth as well as cross-shore width and depth below or elevation above sea level. The codification of cross-shore environments and habitats in the framework of the BCCS provides an interpretative basis for determining the lateral extent of transect units (archetypes and sub archetypes) by lateral extrapolation to polygonal mapping units. The method discussed here is akin to geological cores or cross-sections that are used to laterally extrapolate units within vertical sequences. Repetitive successions of archetypes, based on cross-shore ecological interpretation of satellite imagery, results in a common master sequence referred to as a Dominant Catenary Sequence (DCS). The DCS is composed of generic archetypes, such as Barrier, Beach, Beach Ridge, Cliff, Coral Reef, Delta, Dune, Flat, Ice, Lagoon, Mountain, Rock, Till (Glacial Material), Upland, and Wetland. The more detailed Coastal Ecological Sequence (CES) of a coastal belt, which is defined by a discrete codification sequence built up from the DCS, is formulated by cognitive geovisual analytics to link the dominant catena with a numbered shore-parallel shape distinction and subscripted sub archetypes to refine the sequential composite archetypes in a DCS. Once the DCS- or CES-labeled transect has been plotted on a satellite image, the identified shore-normal units can be extrapolated into shore-parallel polygons by traditional (i.e. visual, cognitive) image interpretive and mapping techniques to show the spatial extent of classified archetypes and sub archetypes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2020. The Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS): Defining coastal ecological sequences with catena codification to classify cross-shore successions based on interpretation of satellite imagery. Journal of Coastal Research, 36(1), 1–29. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Coastal classification is a complicated endeavor due to the complexity of coasts and the application of special purpose characterizations for a wide range of tasks. The conundrum of coastal classification in general is also partly related to variable definitions and uses of common terms such as coast, coastline, shore, shoreline, and seashore. This research effort was not aimed at replacing extant systems but rather investigating the possibility of using the new Biophysical Cross-shore Classification System (BCCS) to define or classify cross-shore ecological successions in coastal belts based visual analytics and cognitive interpretation of satellite imagery. Approximately 200 coastal images from equatorial to polar regions showed that specific types of ecological successions were repetitive and could be organized by dominant characteristics. Certain ecological characterizations were so prominent and common that they became identified as Archetypes, which included Barrier, Beach, Beach Ridge, Cliff, Coral Reef, Delta, Dune, Flat, Ice, Lagoon, Mountain, Rock, Till (Glacial Material), Upland, and Wetland. When several archetypes are sequentially linked together based on the cross-shore ecological interpretation of the imagery, a generalized or idealized common master sequence is created and deemed the Dominant Catenary Sequence (DCS; e.g., Beach-Dune-Wetland). The more detailed Coastal Ecological Sequence (CES) of a coastal belt, which is presented as a codification sequence, can be formulated by cognitively linking the Dominant Catenary Sequence with a numbered shore-parallel shape distinction and subscripted sub archetypes that further refine the archetypes present in the DCS. Overall, the BCCS was found to be an effective method for the classification of cross-shore ecological successions in coastal belts. Descriptive headers, extended captions, and Coastal Ecological Sequences are provided for randomly selected satellite images, with some examples shown in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A personal narrative is presented which explores the author's experience going to Papua New Guinea to conduct some geochemical and geotechnical soil surveys inland in mountainous terrain from the southeast coast.

Finkl, C.W. and Vollmer, H.M., 2017. Methods for investigating sediment flux under high-energy conditions on the southeast Florida continental shelf using Laser Airborne Depth Sounding (LADS) in a Geographic Information System (GIS) dataframe. Laser Airborne Depth Sounding (LADS) bathymetric surveys conducted in 2001 and 2008 bracket two hurricane landfalls (Hurricane Ivan in 2004 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005) in Broward County, southeast Florida, thus providing an opportunity to investigate changes in bottom topography as a result of wave and current action. The seafloor in this region is characterized by a wide range of sedimentary features that are normally stabilized (held in place) by outcrops of carbonate bedrock and coral reefs. During high-energy events, however, the sedimentary deposits are partially mobilized by waves and currents. This methodological study used the two LADS bathymetric surveys to construct triangulated irregular networks (TINs, which are a digital means of representing surface morphology) surfaces using the ESRI® ArcGIS 3D Analyst extension. The two bathymetric TIN surfaces were compared to ascertain spatial gains and losses by landform. Comparison of TIN surfaces provides a means to estimate changes in sediment volume and infer variability in cross-shore sediment transport. Application of this methodological procedure is constrained to locations where seafloor features have been interpreted from the LADS bathymetry so that sediment volume changes can be related to specific landform units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Makowski, C.; Finkl, C.W., and Vollmer, H.M., 2017. Geoform and landform classification of continental shelves using geospatially integrated IKONOS satellite imagery. Geomorphological characterization of coastal environments along continental shelves depends on accurate interpretation of mesoscale lithic and clastic benthic geoforms and landforms. Using the Geospatially Integrated Seafloor Classification Scheme (G-ISCS), cognitive visual interpretations of seafloor geoforms and their associated landforms were conducted along a diverse segment of the southeast (SE) Florida continental shelf. GeoEye IKONOS-2 satellite imagery provided the remotely sensed visual medium on which interpretations were based. With ESRI ArcGIS® ArcMap software, classification maps were created from the cognitive interpretations to show spatial distribution results of geoform and landform features throughout the study area. Additionally, smaller-scale 'call-out figures' documented specific geomorphological associations among the classified units. Analysis attribute tables compared and contrasted the abundance ( i.e. number of classifying vector polygons) and calculated areas for each geoform and landform classified. It was determined that classification of geoform and landform benthic features along continental shelves can be achieved where water clarity conditions allow for the cognitive visual interpretation of such seafloor formations. Future studies may build upon the classification of continental shelf geoforms and landforms to integrate more transient biogeomorphological features of the marine environment ( e.g., sediment distribution, biological species identification, density of flora and fauna present), thus creating a more detailed and inclusive classification of a selected coastal region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Makowski, C.; Finkl, C.W., and Vollmer, H.M., 2016. Classification of continental shelves in terms of geospatially integrated physiographic realms and morphodynamic zones. The continental shelf off southeast Florida contains a range of benthic environments that are discernible via remote sensing platforms because of low turbidity in the water column. Using the Geospatially Integrated Seafloor Classification Scheme (G-ISCS), physiographic realms and associated morphodynamic zones were cognitively interpreted and classified at a nominal scale of 1:6000 across four remote sensing platforms ( i.e. GeoEye IKONOS-2, Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper [TM], Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper [ETM], and National Agriculture Imagery Program [NAIP] high-resolution aerial orthoimagery). Attribute tables were created in conjunction with interpretations to quantify and compare spatial relationships between classificatory units and the different remote sensing platforms. Resultant maps exported from ESRI ArcGIS® ArcMap software showed that while IKONOS-2 satellite imagery and NAIP aerial orthoimagery provided the greatest detail, classification of physiographic realms and morphodynamic zones was still possible using TM and ETM satellite images. Overall, it was determined that IKONOS-2 provided the most beneficial imagery when applying such a classification of coastal and seafloor features. It is postulated that accurate delineation of physiographic realms and morphodynamic zones can provide a foundation for more in-depth biogeomorpholocial classification ( e.g., further subdivision into benthic geoforms, coastal landforms, biological cover) along continental shelves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vollmer, H.M.; Finkl, C.W., and Makowski, C., 2015. Novel method for interpreting submarine geomorphology from LADS bathymetry using Surfer® 12 shaded relief maps. Laser Airborne Depth Sounding (LADS) produces high-resolution x, y, z surface data of seafloor topography that permits interpretation of geomorphological features, benthic environments, and habitats, as well as recognition of cultural features and submarine engineering structures. Because the quality of the resulting surface data depends on the type of processing software, it is worthwhile to consider potential improvements of previous bathymetric imagery displays generated from LADS data. A novel method for formatting, gridding, and exporting LADS data into Surfer® 12 software is shown to produce enhanced quality surfaces that facilitate shaded relief map analysis. This new Surfer 12 shaded relief map creation procedure intensifies the interpretation of submarine geomorphology from LADS bathymetry images in a GIS platform environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Makowski, C.; Finkl, C.W., and Vollmer, H.M., 2015. Geospatially integrated seafloor classification scheme (G-ISCS): A new method for cognitively interpreting benthic biogeomorphological features. Because benthic environments show ecotonal successions that biophysically fuse geomorphological units with biological coverages, there is a need for cognitive biogeomorphological classification methods. This study introduces a new geospatially integrated seafloor classification scheme (G-ISCS) methodology for cognitively interpreting geomorphological components and dominant biological covers from a variety of remotely sensed imagery within a geographic information system interface. An ordered, hierarchical classification scheme was thus developed to discriminate various categories such as physiographic realm, morphodynamic zone, geoform, landform, dominant surface sediment, dominant biological cover, and density of dominant biological cover. When applying the G-ISCS method to multispectral satellite imagery ( e.g., GeoEye IKONOS-2), individual raw scenes were imported into IDRISI© Taiga to enhance frequency distributions of spectral reflectance through contrast stretching. Image enhancement was applied to blue, green, and red wavelength bands and combined to create 24-bit color composite images that were suitable for interpretation. Using ESRI ArcGIS® ArcMap software, raster catalogs were created for enhanced imagery data sets and projected on an interactive SmartBoard® overlay system for real-time, on-screen digitizing of seafloor feature boundaries at a nominal scale of 1:6000. Differentiation of marine environments was based on spectral reflectance characteristics of color, tone, saturation, pattern, and texture of the seafloor topology. Individual thematic subset maps were then created by hierarchical category and amalgamated in ArcMap to create interactive benthic environment maps. Attribute tables were compiled in conjugation with thematic map products to quantify relationships between mapping units, as well as to generate accurate biogeomorphological spatial statistics. Overall, the new G-ISCS method can be applied across multiple remote sensing platforms to cognitively delineate and interpret benthic biogeomorphological features along shelf environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2015. Autoclassification versus cognitive interpretation of digital bathymetric data in terms of geomorphological features for seafloor characterization. The determination of seafloor geomorphological features has always been a difficult task, and it was not until the advent of marine remote sensing techniques that seafloor features could be accurately discerned. Airborne acquisition of digital bathymetric data provides a wealth of information that can be interpreted in different ways. This paper considers the pros and cons of computerized autoclassifications versus cognitive interpretations of seafloor features. The continental shelf off the southeast Florida coast contains LADS (laser airborne depth sounding) surveys that are here used to compare and contrast automated classifications of bathymetry with cognitive differentiation of marine geomorphological features. There are advantages and disadvantages associated with each approach, and the choice of methods depends on the purpose or goals of the project. Once seafloor features have been cognitively discerned from enhanced, color ramped, and vertically exaggerated bathymetry, machine classifications can be compared with known units. Using ArcGIS® ArcMap software, five- and seven-class unsupervised isocluster autoclassifications were found to moderately represent known bottom topography, whereas the interactive supervised autoclassification closely approximated cognitively discerned bathymetric patterns. Hand-drawn or digitized cognitively derived maps were more generalized than supervised computerized classifications based on training fields. Overall, both methods were found to be beneficial approaches, as they complement each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Klemas, V.; Finkl, C.W., and Kabbara, N., 2014. Remote sensing of soil moisture: an overview in relation to coastal soils. Soil moisture plays an important role in the exchange of water and heat energy between the land and atmosphere and is used in studies of global climate change. Soil moisture data are also required for reservoir management, early warning of droughts, irrigation scheduling, and crop yield forecasting. Coastal soils in general span the gamut of soil properties necessary for agriculture and maintaining natural environments, including transitional wetlands. Beach characteristics, such as soil moisture, grain size and type, are needed for determining substrate-bearing strength, modeling beach erosion, and planning beach nourishment. Because microwave radiation from soil is strongly dependent on moisture content, soil moisture has traditionally been mapped with airborne microwave radiometers. Innovative antenna technology has enabled microwave radiometers on satellites, such as Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity and Aqua, to measure soil moisture on a global scale. Better corrections for surface roughness, vegetation cover, soil temperature, and topography must still be devised, and techniques for sensing soil moisture beyond the top few centimeters developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seawater desalination plants, especially those in Saudi Arabia, require the disposal of useless posttreatment brine-- generally about 50% of the volume of seawater processed by such plants designed to make freshwater. This article focuses on the sustainability of the brine disposal process. A proper decision about the brine disposal method must take into account technical, environmental, and economic constraints. Brine disposal by submerged pipes is considered here; the case of desalination plants in Saudi Arabia on the Red Sea shore is considered as an example. The central concept is the available head at the discharge point. Higher values of the available head ensure larger jet dispersion lengths and better conditions for submarine brine dilution. We assessed the quality of the dilution process by calculating the Froude number of the brine discharge jet, whose optimum values are between 20 to 25. Using the Froude number allows us to find the optimum pipe length and the optimum depth of the discharge point for a sustainable brine disposal. Comments concerning the cost of the submerged pipes are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Khalil, S. M.; Finkl, C. W., and Raynie, R. C., 2013. Development of new rRestoration strategies for Louisiana barrier island systems, northern Gulf of Mexico, USA The rapid degradation of Louisiana's barrier island (BI) systems adversely impacts the vitality of strategic economic and biological resources (including aquatic habitat). Louisiana's BI systems have undergone landward migration through BI rollover, area loss and island narrowing as a result of complex interactions among land subsidence, sea-level rise, wave processes, inadequate sediment supply, and intense human disturbance. Consequently, the structural continuity of the BI shorelines has weakened as the islands narrowed, fragmented and, in some cases, submerged. Several multipronged restoration strategies are currently underway to develop effective interdisciplinary restoration projects that mitigate degradation of the Mississippi River delta plain and compensate for coastal land loss. Restoration of the BI systems requires strategies that protect interior wetlands and bolster the first lines of storm defense in a post- Hurricane Katrina-Rita-Gustav-Ike-Isaac and post-Deep Water Horizon era. Coastline degradation would have continued were it not for a series of massive barrier island restoration projects. Such efforts commonly consist of beach nourishment on the Gulfside and marsh creation on the bayside of barrier islands. Regionalizing monitoring, maintenance, and data management efforts support the still evolving scientific and engineering aspects of rebuilding BIs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finkl, C.W. and Makowski, C., 2013. Perception of Coastal Hazards in Terms of Physical, Biological, and Human-Induced Cascades: An Example from the Southeast Florida Coastal Zone (SFCZ). Discussions of coastal hazard impacts commonly emphasize geomorphological, geodynamic, and meteohydrodynamic physical events. A true census of all coastal hazards must also, however, include not-so-obvious biological and anthropogenic impacts. Biological coastal hazards are now more common because increasing human presence along shores fosters contact with hazardous biological flora and fauna. Human-induced hazards, often viewed as normal daily activities, cryptically lead to unwanted erosion and deposition or to the pollution of coastal marine environments. The South Florida Coastal Zone (SFCZ) is a good example of how all three categories of coastal hazards (physical processes, biological ecodynamics, and anthropogenic machinations) collectively constitute a negative-pressure cascade upon the coast. Accurate identification and assessment of coastal hazard cascades is the critical 'first step' in forming effective disaster resilience through public awareness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal dune systems are an integral component of maintaining a sustainable, well-performing beach. With the aid of dune-stabilizing vegetation, constructed foredunes provide a "natural" armorment behind the dry berm to help protect the backshore from storm surge and intense overwash. However, as the costs of beach nourishment continue to inflate, the urgency to construct or restabilize the foredune area of the beach is often overlooked. Furthermore, to compound the problem, suitable sand resources are becoming unobtainable because of regulatory restrictions, prompting engineers and coastal zone managers to use all available dredged sediments for berm and beach face replenishment. In order to provide an alternative method for dune construction, this study examined the suitability of recycled glass cullet as an artificial dune fill material. After construction of an artificial dune was completed, recycled (silica) glass cullet and natural beach sand were provided as growth mediums for dune-stabilizing vegetation. Immature transplants of sea oats (Uniola paniculata) and panic grass (Panicum amarum) were planted in the artificial dune and evaluated over a 1-year growing period. Suitability of the recycled glass cullet was determined through the overall performance of the salt-tolerant plants, which included fresh and dry weight measurements, new shoot development, and root and stalk length. It was determined that both species of dune-stabilizing vegetation planted in a recycled glass medium outperformed those specimens growing in the natural beach sediment controls. We postulate that the results may stem from a slight increase in the angularity of the recycled cullet vs. the natural sand grains. This minuscule planar difference in the surface area of the grains may contribute to more aggregated moisture content within a recycled glass cullet dune, allowing for optimal growing conditions for dune vegetation. By showing this positive suitability of recycled glass cullet as artificial dune fill, a new, innovative method for dune protection may now be considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The belief that rivers and oceans cleaned themselves faded as humanity expanded and wastes took on an ever more diversified character. The pollution of waterways, bays, inlets, and gulfs made many of them unusable for water transport. The solution commonly applied is to dredge, an expensive approach but also one that de facto substitutes land pollution for water pollution. Availability of land is not limitless either. Hence, in situ bioremediation is gathering an increasing number of adepts. Alleviating damages caused by green tides and cleaning up waterways, estuaries, inlets, and bays are continuous coastal and river concerns that have been variously approached. This paper reviews and summarizes several experiments. Treatment of sludge is necessitated, over several decades, by the diminishing space on land to deposit the dredgings, but also by the need to protect human and subsidiarily animal and plant health. Substantial advances have been made in the area of bioremediation including, but not limited to, the hydrological realm. Nevertheless, some frequently occurring compounds remain recalcitrant. Pilot projects have been conducted for some time in the United States and European countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tsunamis in the eastern Mediterranean and Red Seas, induced by earthquakes and/or volcanic activity, pose potential hazards to shipping and fixed harbor infrastructure within the Suez Canal. Potential vulnerabilities of the Suez Canal to possible tsunami impacts are reviewed by reference to geological, historical, archeoseismological, and anecdotal data. Tsunami catalogues and databases compiled by earlier researchers are perused to estimate potential return periods for tsunami events that could directly affect the Suez Canal and operational infrastructures. Analysis of these various records indicates a centurial return period, or multiples thereof, for long-wave repetition that could generally impact the Nile Delta, whereas numerical models indicate a multidecadal frequency. It is estimated that tsunami waves 2 m high would begin to break about 4 to 10 km down-canal, whereas a 10-m wave break would occur about 0.5 to 3 km into the Canal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Australia is one of the driest continents on earth with most interior lands classified as steppe or desert. With an expanding coastal population pushing farther inland, the need for freshwater increases for urban use, agriculture, and industry and because there is little freshwater at the surface and most of the groundwater is too saline and generally unsuitable for multiple uses, new sources of freshwater must be sought to sustain future development of Western Australia's interior. To mitigate this ongoing macroproblem, it is proposed to establish a new Southern Ocean maritime sea-lane between Antarctica and Western Australia with the first large-scale deployment of very capacious floating liquid freshwater containers (Stauber bags), barges hauled and shuttled regularly by carousel-type supertugboats to convey a directly acquired, essentially cost-free, bulk-harvested potable subglacial Antarctic meltwater possibly siphoned from beneath the floating Amery Ice Shelf and transported to Western Australia. Access of the floating liquid freshwater containers to Perth, the capital city, would be up-slope the offshore Perth Canyon to the continental shelf. Stored containers could lay off in the lee of Rottnest Island at the Perth Terminal. From there, freshwater could be transported to wherever needed in coastal rural and urban Western Australia. On land, Pecero self-rolling bags could be used to distribute all imported freshwater farther inland and serve also as stationary (parked) reservoirs. Stock watering, farm irrigation, and drinking water as well as mineral mine, petroleum refinery, and sewage treatment processing are likely additional income-producing consumptive users. Both bulk long-distance conveyance and long-term storage on land by such means will naturally reduce the present-day stress on Western Australia's domestic water supplies, storage, and delivery systems that are limited by regional climates with long-term seasonal dryness. Freshwater imported would absolutely reduce freshwater stress on Western Australia's excessivelyexploited rivers and excessively mined aquifers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It might be argued that this paper does not sensu stricto contribute to ''polar science.'' It, however, rekindles aspects of its history and of that of both oceanography and cartography. Obviously the interest for the polar regions was keen in the 19th century and elicited financial support. The paper may lift anew the veil that has somewhat dimmed the light that should shine on polar science achievements of Belgian explorers and scientists. Knowledge of the names of geographic features in the Antarctic is probably less widespread, and yet, there are many Belgian names on and near the southernmost continent. Most names were given by the head of the first-ever Antarctic expedition to spend a winter on the southernmost continent. Belgian Royal Navy Lieutenant Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery's expedition in the Antarctic brought back a wealth of scientific information. His trip ended precisely 111 years ago, and has been-literally-carved in stone as the Belgica is indeed one of the 20 oceanographic vessels Prince Albert I of Monaco selected to be represented on the façade of the Musée Océanographique de Monaco. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal restoration in Louisiana requires clean sands for beach and dune restoration, whereas mixed sediments are required to rebuild marshes. The Louisiana coastal erosion problem is especially dire because it occurs on several fronts with the narrowing and overtopping of barrier islands and loss of back barrier bay and interior marshlands. Coastal restoration efforts in Louisiana depend on emplacement of sediment to build up barrier island and deltaic systems. Discovery of usable sediment is thus a vital factor in restoration efforts because up to 80% of some restoration project budgets can be allocated to exploration, exploitation, and emplacement of sediment. Because this cost is directly proportional to the distance of borrow sources from the project area, the cost-effectiveness of barrier island restoration and marsh creation depends on locating sufficient sediment volumes that are suitable for placement on beaches and dunes and for creating marshes. The restoration of Louisiana's barrier islands and the creation of coastal marshes are critically dependent on the availability of suitable modern marine and riverine sediments and other buried fluvio-deltaic deposits. It is thus imperative that a comprehensive sediment management plan be developed to systematically and efficiently identify and allocate suitable sediment resources. At present, coastal and barrier island restoration projects are included in regional planning efforts, and the restoration project is decided before sediment sources are considered. The new approach proposed here is based on planning projects around locations of dredgeable sedimentary deposits in order to optimize sediment resources. Centralization of voluminous historical geoscientific and oil and gas infrastructure data is being accommodated in a new data management system called the Louisiana Sand Resource Database (LASARD). Managing sediment resources more strategically optimizes regional planning strategies and reduces construction costs. The Louisiana Sediment Management Plan (LASMP) conceptualizes systematic planning and better coordination of essential components of the huge restoration and protection effort currently undertaken in Louisiana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continental shelf environments along the Florida Atlantic southeast coast offshore Palm Beach County were mapped by interpreting seafloor topography derived from airborne laser bathymetry. The study area covered approximately 270 km² along 75 km of coast, extending from the shore to about 55 m water depth beyond the shelf break to the upper Florida-Hatteras Slope. Forty-two mapping units were used to depict seafloor features that ranged from bedrock outcrops and coral reefs to different types of morphosedimentary bodies. Background theory and protocols of geomorphological symbolization are provided as a rationale for the seafloor mapping. Geomorphological mapping symbols were developed specifically for this project and collected in a symbol library as part of an ArcInfo GIS extension that was used to produce the maps in a GIS environment. Spatial distribution patterns of landform assemblages evident in the color-pattern mapping units permitted regionalization of shelf environments into three primary geomorphological reaches: Reach I, Sand Flats and Karst Topography; Reach II, Sand Flats and Coral Reefs; and Reach III, Sand Flats, Hardgrounds, and Coral Reefs. The main hardbottom mapping units include rock outcrop and subcrop, rock rubble, ridge fields, and structural sand flats. Sandy nontidal morphosedimentary bodies include diabathic channel fields, dune fields, sand flats, and bar and trough systems. Tidal morphosedimentary features include ebb-tidal deltas, sandbars, and lobe bars. Results of this mapping effort showed that it is possible to map marine and drowned terrestrial landforms on the continental shelf as depicted in high-resolution airborne laser bathymetry. Adaptation of existing symbols or development of specialized symbolization was required to show geomorphic units to advantage. These maps, which characterize shelf environments, are contextualized in terms of shapes, forms, materials, and coastal process zones. These types of maps find immediate application in regional and detailed sand searches for beach renourishment, subsea cable and pipeline routes, wave and current modeling studies, and environmental management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Northwest Territories, Canada's MacKenzie River Delta, Beaufort Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Ecuador's Boca del Rio Santiago Delta, Pacific Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Turkmenistan's Turkmenbashi Bay, Caspian Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Brazil's Amazon River Delta, Atlantic Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Pakistan's Indus River Delta, Arabian Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Alaska's Ivishak River Delta, Beaufort Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Alaska's Cook Inlet, Sustina Flats Deltaic Area, Gulf of Alaska Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Hawaii's Ni'ihau Island, Pacific Coast.. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Chile's Tierra del Fuego Archipelago, Isla Wollaston, Strait of Magellan Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Romania's Danube River Delta, Black Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Egypt's Nile River Delta, Mediterranean Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Argentinian and Uruguayan Border's Rio de la Plata Delta, Atlantic Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

An introduction is presented which discusses several articles published within issue that provides illustrated reference of biophysical environment of different cliff, delta, and dune archetypes.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Oregon's Pacific Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Panama, Azeuro Peninsula's Equatorial Delta, Gulf of Panama Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Denmark's Skagen, North Sea Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.

The article presents an illustrated reference of biophysical environment of Mexico, State of Veracruz's Gulf of Mexico Coast. Topics discussed include coastal belt linked classification (CBLC), related environments and habitats; dominant catenary sequence (DCS): coastal ecological sequence (CES); and related geology, biology, geomorphology, littoral oceanography.