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Background: Celiac disease is an auto-immune disorder characterized by clinical manifestations that appear in genetically predisposed subjects after gluten ingestion. In the last years, there has been a progressive change in clinical manifestations. Our aim was to evaluate the nutritional status of children with celiac disease at diagnosis and how the gluten-free diet (GFD) influences their growth., Methods: A search on PubMed/Medline was performed using "celiac disease", "body mass index" and "children" as key words.  Medline, Scopus, PubMed publisher and Google Scholar were searched as well.  We selected clinical studies describing the nutritional status of patients before and after GFD using indicators like height, weight, BMI, skeletal age.  We excluded papers referred to adult population or in which other diseases were related to celiac disease. Also literature-reviews were excluded., Results: From 1999 to 2018, 10 studies were found. Overall, 1383 patients in pediatric age were evaluated for their nutritional status at diagnosis of celiac disease and after a variable period from 1 to 17 years of GFD. Indicators considered were height, weight, BMI and skeletal age., Conclusions: the nutritional status of celiac patients at diagnosis is variable including an increasing number of overweight and obese. GFD has a beneficial impact on growth changes determining a correction of BMI distribution towards a Gaussian shape.

Background and Aim: Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) with or without fine needle aspiration/biopsy (FNA/B) is a well-established diagnostic tool in adults for the evaluation and management of gastrointestinal (GI) tract disorders. Its use in children is still limited as well as literature in pediatric age is limited, although the application of EUS is now increasing. The present article aims to review the current literature about EUS indication, accuracy and safety in pediatric age., Methods: Electronic literature searches were conducted using Pubmed, Medline, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials using the word pediatric endoscopic ultrasound, pediatric pancreaticobiliary AND/OR EUS, pediatric EUS technique. Main patients and procedures characteristics were analyzed. The primary endpoint was the indication of EUS. Secondary endpoints were the accuracy of the technique and the incidence of complications., Results: Data were extracted from 19 articles. A total of 571 patients were investigated, with a median age of 12,7 years. A total of 634 EUS procedures were performed. The majority of EUS procedures investigated the pancreaticobiliary tract (77,7%). Most studies showed a high positive impact on management with a median value of 81,7%. No major complications were reported. Five studies reported minor complications with a median value of 2%., Conclusions: EUS is safe and has a significant role in the diagnosis of pancreaticobiliary and GI diseases even in children, with a high therapeutic success. An increasing EUS utilization by pediatric gastroenterologists is expected and offering dedicated EUS training to some selected pediatric gastroenterologists might be indicated.

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is due to the chronic exposure of the esophageal mucosa to acid secretion from the stomach. Helicobacter pylori (H.p.) infection, is a risk factor for the development of peptic ulcer, atrophic gastritis and gastric cancer, and causes various effects on gastric function. The relationship between GERD and H.pylori infection is still subject of debate. Background and aim: In literature no clear causal relationship has been established between GERD and H. pylori infection, although some papers support the onset of esophagitis in patients in whom the infection has been cured. Aim of this work is to review the most recent literature data about the relationship between reflux disease and H. pylori infection. Methods: Articles reviewed were found through literature searches on PubMed, Google Scholar using keywords such as gastroesophageal reflux disease, Helicobacter pylori, acid-related disorders, GERD and esophagitis.

Background and Aim of the Work: Although peripheral neuropathies in children are often of genetic origin, acquired causes should be carefully looked for and ruled out also in the pediatric age. Gastroenterological disorders can be complicated by peripheral neuropathy as a result of micronutrients deficiency, drug toxicity or because of shared pathophysiological mechanisms., Methods: In this descriptive review we sought to give an overview on the most relevant clinical conditions in which peripheral neuropathies are associated with gastro-intestinal disorders or symptoms., Results: We describe the clinical, demographic, and electrophysiological features of peripheral neuropathy in three main clinical scenarios: in the context of common gastroenterological disorders (inflammatory bowel and celiac disease), in the context of micronutrients deficiencies arising from malabsorption irrespective of etiology, and in a rare degenerative mitochondrial disorder, mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy (MNGIE) disorder., Conclusions: The association between gastrointestinal and peripheral nervous system symptoms is probably still underrecognized but has to be actively sought, in order to provide prompt diagnosis resulting in optimal care and long-term management with the aim to improve quality of life and, at least in some conditions, try to impact on prognosis.

Methods for the measure of gastric acid secretion include invasive and non-invasive tests. The gold-standard to measure the acid output is the collection of gastric after in basal condition (Basal Acid Output, B.A.O.) and after an i.m. injection of pentagastrin (Maximal Acid Output, M.A.O.). However, direct measurement of gastric acid production is out of order in clinical practice, but many GI symptoms are claimed to be related with acid disorders and empirically cured. Hypochlorhydria is associated with precancerous conditions such as chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG). Acid measurement with non-invasive methods (pepsinogens) is supported by international guidelines.

Autoimmune diseases, characterized by an alteration of the immune system which results in a loss of tolerance to self antigens often coexist in the same patient. Autoimmune atrophic gastritis, characterized by the development of antibodies agains parietal cells and against intrinsic factor, leads to mucosal destruction that affects primarily the corpus and fundus of the stomach. Autoimmune atrophic gastritis is frequently found in association with thyroid disease, including Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and with type 1 diabetes mellitus, Other autoimmune conditions that have been described in association with autoimmune atrophic gastritis are Addison's disease, chronic spontaneous urticaria, myasthenia gravis, vitiligo, and perioral cutaneous autoimmune conditions, especially erosive oral lichen planus. Interestingly, however, celiac disease, another frequent autoimmune condition, seems to play a protective role for autoimmune atrophic gastritis. The elevated prevalence of autoimmune disease clustering should prompt the clinicial to exclude concomitant autoimmune conditions upon diagnosis of any autoimmune disease.

Gastric cancer is, still nowadays, an important healthcare problem worldwide. In Italy, it represents the fifth tumour by frequency in both men and women over 70 years old. A crucial point is represented by the percentage of early gastric cancers usually found, which is actually very low, and it carries to a worse morbidity and mortality. The most important focus in this oncological disease, is to perform an effective detection of the most common precancerous lesion linked with this neoplasia, chronic atrophic gastritis, in order to avoid the future outcome of gastric cancer itself.

The most frequent pancreatic cancer is pancreatic adenocarcinoma. It has high and early locally and distant invasiveness; this is the reason why it often shows little sign or symptoms in early stage and poor prognosis after the diagnosis, frequently in advanced stage. Although it is possible to detect this tumor in early stage because of its neoplastic precursor (PanINs). Epidemiological data shows that pancreatic cancer is not very common but obvious it is one of the most neoplastic death-cause in the world. The trend of incidence is quite increasing through years, proportionally to the increase of risk factors. About risk factors, it is not easy to detect in all the cases but it is known the role of some of that: there are hereditary risk factors, such as genetic pattern like HBOC, HNPCC, FAP, PJS, FAMMM, HP and CF and environmental ones (modifiable) such as smoke, alcohol consumption, chronic pancreatitis, obesity and diabetes mellitus. This narrative review aims to analyze the epidemiological data of pancreatic cancer and associated risk factors.

Background: Shiga-toxin Escherichia coli productor (STEC) provokes frequently an important intestinal damage that may be considered in differential diagnosis with the onset of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). The aim of this work is to review in the current literature about Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS) and IBD symptoms at the onset, comparing the clinical presentation and symptoms, as the timing of diagnosis and of the correct treatment of both these conditions is a fundamental prognostic factor. A focus is made about the association between typical or atypical HUS and IBD and a possible renal involvement in patient with IBD (IgA-nephropathy)., Methods: A systematic review of scientific articles was performed consulting the databases PubMed, Medline, Google Scholar, and consulting most recent textbooks of Pediatric Nephrology., Results: In STEC-associated HUS, that accounts for 90% of cases of HUS in children, the microangiopathic manifestations are usually preceded by gastrointestinal symptoms. Initial presentation may be considered in differential diagnosis with IBD onset. The transverse and ascending colon are the segments most commonly affected, but any area from the esophagus to the perianal area can be involved. The more serious manifestations include severe hemorrhagic colitis, bowel necrosis and perforation, rectal prolapse, peritonitis and intussusception. Severe gastrointestinal involvement may result in life-threatening complications as toxic megacolon and transmural necrosis of the colon with perforation, as in Ulcerative Colitis (UC). Transmural necrosis of the colon may lead to subsequent colonic stricture, as in Crohn Disease (CD). Perianal lesions and strictures are described. In some studies, intestinal biopsies were performed to exclude IBD. Elevation of pancreatic enzymes is common. Liver damage and cholecystitis are other described complications. There is no specific form of therapy for STEC HUS, but appropriate fluid and electrolyte management (better hyperhydration when possible), avoiding antidiarrheal drugs, and possibly avoiding antibiotic therapy, are recommended as the best practice. In atypical HUS (aHUS) gastrointestinal manifestation are rare, but recently a study evidenced that gastrointestinal complications are common in aHUS in presence of factor-H autoantibodies. Some report of patients with IBD and contemporary atypical-HUS were found, both for CD and UC. The authors conclude that deregulation of the alternative complement pathway may manifest in other organs besides the kidney. Finally, searching for STEC-infection, or broadly for Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection, and IBD onset, some reviews suggest a possible role of adherent invasive E. coli (AIEC) on the pathogenesis of IBD., Conclusions: The current literature shows that gastrointestinal complications of HUS are quite exclusive of STEC-associated HUS, whereas aHUS have usually mild or absent intestinal involvement. Severe presentation as toxic megacolon, perforation, ulcerative colitis, peritonitis is similar to IBD at the onset. Moreover, some types of E. coli (AIEC) have been considered a risk factor for IBD. Recent literature on aHUS shows that intestinal complications are more common than described before, particularly for patients with anti-H factor antibodies. Moreover, we found some report of patient with both aHUS and IBD, who benefit from anti-C5 antibodies injection (Eculizumab).

Gastroenterological diseases are a source of morbidity, mortality and costs, and have a high frequency in general practice; for this reason, we have evaluated the current literature regarding the knowledge and management of these disorders by general practitioners, finding little knowledge and adherence to guidelines, highlighting the need for continuous updating in this regard, and greater collaboration between specialists and general practitioners.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is one of the most common infection in humans, affecting more than half of the population. The prevalence of the infection varies widely in rural developing areas (more than 80%) compared to urban developed ones (less than 40%), as a consequence of different socioeconomic and hygienic conditions. H. pylori infection is usually acquired during childhood; infected people usually remain asymptomatic, but about 30% of individuals may develop mild to severe upper gastrointestinal diseases such as gastritis, peptic ulcer, gastric cancer or MALT lymphoma. The transmission route is not clear yet; the person-to-person transmission, especially within the same family appears to be prevalent, but also environmental contamination is possible. The eradication without a specific therapeutic regimen is very unlikely and the reinfection rate after an effective eradication therapy is quite rare. The reinfection rate will increase if there are family members affected.

Background and Aim of the Work: Historical studies have demonstrated that the prevalence of symptomatic nephrolithiasis is higher in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), compared to general population. The aim of the review was to analyze literature data in order to identify the main risk conditions described in literature and the proposed treatment., Methods: A research on the databases PubMed, Medline, Embase and Google Scholar was performed by using the keywords "renal calculi/lithiasis/stones" and "inflammatory bowel diseases". A research on textbooks of reference for Pediatric Nephrology was also performed, with focus on secondary forms of nephrolithiasis., Results: Historical studies have demonstrated that the prevalence of symptomatic nephrolithiasis is higher in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), compared to general population, typically in patients who underwent extensive small bowel resection or in those with persistent severe small bowel inflammation. In IBD, kidney stones may arise from chronic inflammation, changes in intestinal absorption due to inflammation, surgery or intestinal malabsorption. Kidney stones are more closely associated with Crohn's Disease (CD) than Ulcerative Colitis (UC) in adult patients for multiple reasons: mainly for malabsorption, but in UC intestinal resection may be an additional risk. Nephrolithiasis is often under-diagnosed and might be a rare but noticeable extra-intestinal presentation of pediatric IBD. Secondary enteric hyperoxaluria the main risk factor of UL in IBD, this has been mainly studied in CD, whether in UC has not been completely explained. In the long course of CD recurrent urolithiasis and calcium-oxalate deposition may cause severe chronic interstitial nephritis and, as a consequence, chronic kidney disease. ESRD and systemic oxalosis often develop early, especially in those patients with multiple bowel resections. Even if we consider that many additional factors are present in IBD as hypomagnesuria, acidosis, hypocitraturia, and others, the secondary hyperoxaluria seems to finally have a central role. Some medications as parenteral vitamin D, long-term and high dose steroid treatment, sulfasalazine are reported as additional risk factors. Hydration status may also play an important role in this process. Intestinal surgery is a widely described independent risk factor. Patients with ileostomy post bowel resection may have relative dehydration from liquid stool, which, added to the acidic pH from bicarbonate loss, is responsible for this process. In this acidic pH, the urinary citrate level excretion reduces. The stones most commonly seen in these patients contain uric acid or are mixed. In addition, the risk of calcium containing stones also increases with ileostomy. The treatment of UL in IBD involves correction of the basic gastrointestinal tract inflammation, restricted dietary oxalate intake, and, at times, increased calcium intake. Citrate therapy that increases both urine pH and urinary citrate could also provide an additional therapeutic benefit. Finally, patients with IBD in a pediatric study had less urologic intervention for their calculosis compared with pediatric patients without IBD.

Microsatellites are short tandem repeat DNA sequences of one to tetra base pairs distributed throughout the human genome, both in coding and non-coding regions. Owing to their repeated structure, microsatellites are particularly prone to replication errors that are normally repaired by the Mismatch Repair (MMR) system. MMR is a very highly conserved cellular process, involving many proteins, resulting in the identification, and subsequent repair of mismatched bases, likely to have arisen during DNA replication, genetic recombination or chemical or physical damage. Proteins within the MMR system include MLH1, PMS2, MSH2, MSH6, MLH3, MSH3, PMS1, and Exo1. Deficient MMR (dMMR) results in a strong mutator phenotype known as microsatellite instability (MSI), characterized by widespread length polymorphisms of microsatellite sequences due to DNA polymerase slippage. MSI is recognized as one of the major carcinogenetic pathways of colorectal cancer (CRC): it represents a molecular hallmark of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC), also known as Lynch syndrome (LS); moreover it is detected in 15% of sporadic colorectal cancers, more often due to an epigenetic inactivation of MLH1. Identification of MSI CRC is important, as MSI may serve as a screening tool for detecting LS, a prognostic marker for patient outcome, and a predictive marker for response to chemotherapy and to immunotherapy.

Introduction: Intraoperative endoscopy is a procedure that supports open and laparoscopic surgery, helping the surgeon to identify the presence of endoluminal gastrointestinal lesions which need to be treated, with a correct diagnosis and an adequate therapy., Material and Methods: A search on PubMed was performed using "intraoperative esophagoscopy", "intraoperative duodenoscopy", and "intraoperative enteroscopy" as Mesh terms. The applied exclusion criteria were: papers written before 2000, not concerning pediatric or gastrointestinal pathology, literature-review articles, language different from English., Results: Sixteen studies from 2000 to 2018 were included. Overall, 1210 patients were treated. Different pathologies were considered. Complications were observed in a range of 0.3-14%. The most frequent complications were perforation, bleeding and mucosal tear. Mortality ranged between 0.7% and 1,2%., Conclusion: Intraoperative endoscopy is an indispensable tool for gastrointestinal surgery. In the hands of experienced endoscopists, intraoperative endoscopy can be performed safely, in time-efficient manner, facilitating diagnosis and treatment.

Although the actual prevalence of chronic atrophic gastritis is unknown and it is probable that this entity goes largely underdiagnosed, patients in whom diagnosis is established usually present advanced stages of disease. Destruction of parietal cells, either autoimmune-driven or as a consequence of Helicobacter pylori infection, determines reduction or abolition of acid secretion. Hypo/achloridia causes an increase in serum gastrin levels, with an increased risk of the development of neuroendocrine tumors. Microcytic, hypochromic anemia frequently precedes the development of megaloblastic, vitamin B12-associated anemia. Moreover, vitamin B12 deficiency,may cause elevation of homocysteine, with an increase in the cardiovascular risk, and may be associated with neurological manifestations, mainly characterized by spinal cord demyelination and atrophy, with ensuing sensory-motor abnormalities. Gastrointestinal manifestations seem to be associated with non-acid reflux and tend to be non-specific.

For thousands of years humans have lived in symbiosis with Helicobacter pylori. This infection is acquired mainly during childhood and, despite it represents one of the most common infections in humans, only a minority of infected people may develop health issues and life-threatening diseases. For diagnosing Helicobacter pylori infection in children we can use, at first, non-invasive diagnostic tests, if clinical pattern and/or history are of suspicion. Then, invasive tests i.e. gastroscopy are necessary to confirm the infection. As antibiotics are not widely available in children affected by Helicobacter pylori infection, they should be chosen based on individual antibiotic susceptibility testing obtained by gastric biopsy specimens or the local antibiotic resistance pattern, in empirical treatment is chosen. Test and treat strategy in children should be avoided. In this brief review we summarize how and in which children the infection should be investigate and which the most appropriate eradication treatment should be chosen.

In recent years the metagenomics techniques have allowed to study composition and function of the intestinal microbiota. The microbiota is a new frontier of biomedical research to be explored and there is growing evidence of its fundamental health-promoting activity. The present review gives a synthetic overview on the characteristics and the role of the microbiota in the adult with particular reference to physiology, pathophysiology and relationships with the host and the environment.

Celiac disease is a chronic immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by exposure to dietary gluten in genetically predisposed individuals. Many genes involved in the pathogenesis have been identified and a crucial role is known to be played by the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) system. The main determinants for genetic susceptibility are HLA-DQA1 and HLA-DQB1 genes encoding for HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 molecules, carried by almost all patients affected. However, since HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 heterodimers explain almost 40% of the disease heritability, HLA typing should not be applied in diagnosis, but exclusively to clarify uncertain diagnoses, considering its negative predictive value.

In the last decade, a barge body of scientific literature has suggested that specific alterations of the gut microbiota may be associated with ther development and clinical course of several gastrointestinal diseases, including irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, gastrointestinal cancer and Clostridium difficile infection. These alterations are often referred to as "dysbiosis", a generic term designing reduction of gut microbiota biodiversity and alterations in its composition. Here, we provide a synthetic overview of the key concepts on the relationship between intestinal microbiota and gastrointestinal diseases, focusing on the translation of these concepts into clinical practice.

Usually, non-invasive tests are the first methods for diagnosing Helicobacter pylori (HP) infection. Among these, serological test, stool antigen research and urea breath test are the most used. Antibodies anti-HP are not recommended in low prevalence population, moreover they cannot reveal an ongoing infection, but they only prove a contact with the bacterium. Also, they can persist for a long time after the eradication of the infection, therefore, they should not be used to verify the success of eradication therapy. Stool antigen research and Urea Breath Test (UBT) are useful both in diagnosis and during follow-up after eradication treatment. The stool antigen test is cheaper than Urea breath test with similar sensitivity and specificity.  Non-invasive tests are not able to diagnose the associated complications to HP infection.

Gastric cancer is a common disease with high mortality. The definition of advanced gastric cancer is still debated. Radical surgery associated to appropriate systemic and intra-abdominal chemotherapy is the gold standard treatment. In presence of peritoneal carcinosis, reaching a complete cytoreduction is the key to achieve long-term survival. Adequate lymphadenectomy is also fundamental. Conversion therapy could be applied to selected IV stage patients. No definitive evidences exist regarding the oncological and surgical superiority of mini-invasive approaches over the classical open techniques.

Background: The small bowel has often been considered the mysterious "black hole" of the gastrointestinal tract. With regards to this, the development of the wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) has represented a turning point. It is a non-invasive technique, enabling an excellent visualization of the small bowel (SB) mucosa without the use of radiation. The WCE was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2001 for adults and in 2004 for children. The aim of the present review is to provide an update on indications, diagnostic yield, safety and limitations of WCE in children. Even though literature regarding the use of WCE in pediatric age is more limited than in adults, WCE is a useful and safe diagnostic tool for the exploration of the small bowel also in children. The indications for WCE are similar at any age, however the main indication in children is Crohn's disease (CD), while in the adults is the research of SB bleeding. The main limitation in pediatric age is the possibility for younger children to swallow the capsule. WCE in pediatric is a rapidly advancing technology and has the potential to further transform the evaluation and management of SB disease.

Background and Aim of the Work: Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMN) of the pancreas are cystic lesions with malignant potential. Given their increasing incidence in the latest years, a precise characterization and management of these lesions have become more and more crucial: even though the majority of IPMN has a benign and indolent course, it is fundamental to early recognize and stratify patients in order to accurately plan a tailored follow-up and to individuate those that would benefit of surgical treatment. The aim of this paper is to highlight the most recent evidence on IPMN available in the current literature., Methods: We performed a review of the recent literature and of the recent guidelines about pancreatic cystic lesions, especially IPMN., Results: The incidence of IPMN is now on the rise: an increasing number of patients, possibly because of the increasing diagnostic yield of imaging techniques, is being diagnosed with pancreatic cystic lesions, a great part of which are IPMN. The possibility of malignant transformation requires a careful approach to these patients, in the need of tailoring the follow-up and the therapy., Conclusion: A detailed diagnosis, the determination of risk factors for malignant transformation and a multisciplinary approach are of foremost importance for an effective management of IPMN.

Colonic Diverticulosis is one of the most common anatomical findings during colonoscopy. This condition has 60% incidence in the population over 60 years old. About 20% of patients will develop Diverticular Disease, and 5% of them will evolve into Diverticulitis. Until the last years there weren't any approaches for the endoscopic classification of this pathology. In 2013, in Florence, the first endoscopic classification was developed: DICA (Diverticular Inflammation and Complication Assessment). The aim of this article is to focus on the process of the development and the validation of the classification by the pool of gastroenterology experts, and, as well, its usefulness during the clinical practice.

Diverticulosis of the colon is the most frequent anatomical alteration diagnosed at colonoscopy. The prevalence of the disease is higher in elderly patients over 65 years old, recent studies show an increment also in youngers over 40 years old. Even its large prevalence in the population, its pathophysiology still remain poorly understood. It's widely accepted that diverticula are likely to be the result of complex interactions among genetic factors, alteration of colonic motility, lifestyle conditions such as smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, fiber and meat intake with diet. Recently many authors considered also alterations in colonic microbiota composition, co-morbidity with diabetes and hypertension and the chronic assumption of certain medications like PPI, ARB and aspirin, as important risk factors for the development of diverticulosis. The aim of this narrative review is to summarise current knowledges on this topic.

Background: Contrast enhanced Computed Tomography (CCT) is the most used imaging test to investigate acute abdominal clinical conditions, because of its high sensitivity and specificity. It is mandatory to make a correct and prompt diagnosis when life threatening abdominal diseases as mesenteric ischemia are suspected. Contrast medium administration was linked to acute renal failure, therefore radiologist often prefer to perform CCT without contrast in patients needing to undergo the exam with increased serum creatinine.  The aim of the review was to focus on the incidence of contrast induced nephropathy in patients presenting non-traumatic acute abdominal clinical conditions, who underwent CCT with intravenous contrast agent administration in emergency setting., Materials and Methods: The systematic review protocol was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Protocol (PRISMA-P). Quality of the evidence will be evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology., Results: The strongest currently available evidence on the incidence of post-contrast acute kidney injury (AKI) following intravenous contrast agent administration consists in a meta-analysis of observational studies. Data extracted from meta-analyses demonstrate that, compared with non-contrast CT, CCT was not significantly associated with AKI. Moreover, the risk of AKI (RR=0.79; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.62, 1.02; P=.07), death (RR=0.95; 95% CI: 0.55, 1.67; P=.87), and dialysis (RR=0.88; 95% CI: 0.23, 3.43; P=.85) is similar, compared with the risk of AKI in the non-contrast medium group. Furthermore, intravenous low-osmolality iodinated contrast material is a nephrotoxic risk factor, but not in patients with a stable SCr level less than 1.5 mg/dL, therefore many factors other than contrast material could affect PC-AKI rates., Discussion and Conclusions: The benefits of diagnostic information gained from contrast enhanced TC in assessing AA are fundamental in some clinical scenarios. The risk of contrast induced nephropathy (CIN) is negligible in patients with normal renal function but the incidence appears to rise to as high as 25% in patients with pre-existing renal impairment or in the presence of risk factors such as diabetes, advanced age, vascular disease and use of certain concurrent medications. The incidence of CIN/AKI after intravenous contrast administration is very low in general population. Radiologists and referring physicians should be familiar with the risk factors for renal disease, CIN and preventing measures.

Several possibilities in treating advanced gastric cancer exist. Radical surgery associated with chemotherapy represents the cornerstone. Which one is more effective among neoadjuvant, adjuvant or perioperative chemotherapy is still a matter of debate. Several innovative results showed the necessity to keep increasingly into consideration the intraperitoneal administration of chemotherapies. Moreover, classical drugs and their ways of administration should be combined with the new ones to improve results. Lastly the prevention of recurrence should be considered: one possibility is to administer intraperitoneal chemotherapy earlier in the therapeutic algorithm.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) - Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) - are chronic conditions characterised by relapsing inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. They represent an increasing public health concern and an aetiological enigma due to unknown causal factors. The current knowledge on the pathogenesis of IBD is that genetically susceptible individuals develop intolerance to a dysregulated gut microflora (dysbiosis) and chronic inflammation develops as a result of environmental triggers. Among the environmental factors associated with IBD, diet plays an important role in modulating the gut microbiome, and, consequently, it could have a therapeutic impact on the disease course. An overabundance of calories and some macronutrients typical of the Western dietetic pattern increase gut inflammation, whereas several micronutrients characteristic of the Mediterranean Diet have the potential to modulate gut inflammation, according to recent evidence. Immunonutrition has emerged as a new concept putting forward the role of vitamins such as vitamins A, C, E, and D, folic acid, beta carotene and trace elements such as zinc, selenium, manganese and iron. However, when assessed in clinical trials, specific micronutrients showed a limited benefit. Further research is required to evaluate the role of individual food compounds and complex nutritional interventions with the potential to decrease inflammation as a means of prevention and management of IBD. The current dietary recommendations for disease prevention and management are scarce and non evidence-based. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the complex interaction between diet, microbiome and immune-modulation in IBD, with particular focus to the role of the Mediterranean Diet as a tool for prevention and treatment of the disease.

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) has become a mainstay in providing enteral access for patients with obstructive head, neck and esophageal tumors. Tumor cell implantation is a rare complication in patients with aerodigestive cancers, who have undergone PEG tube placement. The objective of this review is to determine the incidence and contributing risk factors leading to the implantation of metastases into the abdominal wall following PEG placement. A comprehensive review of the literature in PUBMED (2008-2018) was performed.  The literature search revealed reports of more than 50 cases of abdominal wall metastases after PEG placement. As most of these studies were case reports, the exact rate of metastasis remains unknown. Generally pharyngoesophageal location of primary cancer (100%), squamous cell histology (98%), poorly differentiated tumor cells (92%), advanced pathological stage (97%), and large primary cancer size were identified as strong risk factors for the development of stomal metastasis. Abdominal wall metastases following PEG placement are a rare but serious complication in patients with head and neck malignancy.

Fluorouracil-based preoperative chemoradiotherapy represents a standard option for the treatment of locally advanced rectal cancer. Randomized clinical trials have shown that fluorouracil concomitant to preoperative radiation enhances tumor shrinkage (with 10% to 15% of the patients showing a complete pathological tumor response) compared with preoperative radiation alone. A high response rate is of clinical importance in rectal cancer, since patients who achieve a complete pathological response may experience improved long-term survival. Adding oxaliplatin to fluorouracil-based preoperative chemoradiotherapy has no effect on response of the primary rectal tumor and single-agent fluoropyrimidine remains the standard chemotherapy in this setting. Despite novel biological insights and therapeutic advances, little is known about potential biological markers able to predict pathological tumor response before treatment and to subsequently impact patients' prognosis. This review focuses on the current available data on main molecular markers and molecular subtypes and the possible upcoming introduction of such analyses in the clinical setting.

Chronic gastritis is a long-lasting disease that can lead to a loss of appropriate gastric glands. Gastritis, as term, apply to an inflammation of the stomach, histologically proven, sometimes with structural mucosal changes. Worldwide Helicobacter pylori's infection play a pivotal role as the main etiological effector of chronic active gastritis. H. p. is a bacterium with a selective tropism for the gastric mucosa, able to survive in a hostile environment for colonization of organisms other than itself, able to develop strategies for survival and for avoidance of the defence mechanisms, causing inflammatory changes, that vary from asymptomatic mild gastritis to more severe injury such as peptic ulcer as well as premalignant lesions and malignant tumours. The pattern and distribution of gastritis strongly correlate with these sequelae and chronic atrophic gastritis with intestinal metaplasia is now assessed as a precancerous lesion with definite risk of evolution towards intraepithelial lesions of both low and high grade, as expected in the model of the Correa's cascade. In fact, the leading complication of chronic gastritis remains its close correlation with gastric cancer being biologically linked to H. pylori infection, nowadays known as a class I carcinogen. Gastric carcinogenesis is due to environmental factors, as well as to bacterial strain, host responses and gastric mucosal microbiome dysbiosis. Since, individual patients show different gastric cancer risk, it is mandatory to identify patients at risk of developing gastric cancer to offer a targeted search for lesions with a more rapid development of neoplasm liable, in an early phase, to a less destructive treatment. OLGA staging system is the most reliable and powerful system that allow the recognition of patient with a higher risk of developing gastric cancer.

The use of fluorescence-guided surgery for benign and malignant hepatobiliary (HPB) neoplasms has significantly increased and improved imaging methods creating new interesting perspectives. A major challenge in HPB surgery is performing radical resection with maximal preservation of the liver parenchyma and obtaining a low rate of complications. Despite the developments, visual inspection, palpation, and intraoperative ultrasound remain the most utilized tools during surgery today.  In laparoscopic and robotic HPB surgery palpation is not possible. Fluorescence imaging enables identification of subcapsular liver tumors through accumulation of indocyanine green (ICG), after preoperative intravenous injection, in cancerous tissues of hepatocellular carcinoma and in noncancerous hepatic parenchyma, around intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma and liver metastases, and it can also be used for visualizing extrahepatic bile duct anatomy and hepatic segmental borders, increasing the accuracy and the easiness of open and minimally invasive hepatectomy.

Background: Adherence to a healthy diet has been reported to be essential for the primary prevention of colorectal cancer, through a reduction of tissue inflammation, a low concentration of circulating lipoproteins and lower levels of serum cholesterol. Since an altered expression of the fatty acids pattern has been demonstrated to be a crucial event in colorectal carcinogenesis, lipidomic analysis is considered able to identify early diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of complex diseases such as colorectal cancer., Methods: cell membrane fatty acid profile and serum lipoproteins pattern were evaluated by gas chromatography and electrophoresis method respectively., Results: There is a close association between diet and lipidomic profile in colorectal cancer, both in pre-clinical and clinical studies. A modified serum lipoproteins pattern has been demonstrated to be predominant in intestinal tumors., Conclusions: The study of fatty acids profile in cell membrane and the evaluation of serum lipoproteins subfractions could be useful to have an integrate vision on the interactions between lipids and the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer and to understand the mechanisms of action and the consequences of these interactions on human health status.

Background: Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), are chronic, relapsing-remitting diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, including Crohn's disease (CD), Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Unclassified IBD (IBDU). Their pathogenesis involves genes and environment as cofactors in inducing autoimmunity; particularly the interactions between enteric pathogens and immunity is being studied. Helicobacter pylori (HP) is common pathogen causing gastric inflammation. Studies found an inverse prevalence association between HP and IBD, suggesting a potential protecting role of HP from IBD., Methods: A literature search of the PubMed database was performed using the key words ''helicobacter pylori'', ''inflammatory bowel disease'', ''crohn disease'', "ulcerative colitis". Embase, Medline (OvidSP), Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed publisher, Cochrane and Google Scholar were also searched. Prevalence rate-ratios among HP in IBD patients, HP in CD patients, HP in UC patients, HP in IBDU patients were extracted, each group was compared with controls, to verify the inverse association between HP and IBD prevalence., Results: In all groups the dispersion of data suggested an inverse association between IBD group and controls, even when the comparison was carried out separately between each group of newly diagnosed patients and controls, to rule out the possible bias of ongoing pharmacologic therapy., Conclusions: The results of this review show a striking inverse association between HP infection and the prevalence of IBD, independently from the type of IBD considered across distinct geographic regions. Anyway, data should be interpreted cautiously, as wider, prospective and more homogeneous research on this topic are awaited, which could open new scenarios about environmental etiology of IBD.

The manifestations of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) have been recently classified into either esophageal or extra-esophageal syndromes. Clinical history, questionnaire data and response to antisecretory therapy are insufficient to make a conclusive diagnosis of GERD. Endoscopy had a low sensitivity. Recently, the availability of multichannel intraluminal impedance and pH-monitoring (MII-pH) has modified the diagnostic approach towards atypical manifestations of GERD. There is a rising consensus that this technique should be considered as the gold standard for GERD diagnosis. Gastrin 17 (G-17) has been proposed as a non-invasive marker of GERD, due to the negative feedback between acid and the hormone. G17 levels seem able to identify patients with acid and non-acid reflux.

Chronic autoimmune thyroid disease or Hashimoto thyroiditis (HT) and Graves-Basedow disease (GD) are the main autoimmune thyroid diseases in pediatric age. Both are characterized by the production of anti-thyroid antibodies, by an infiltration of autoreactive B and T lymphocytes into the thyroid parenchyma and by alterations in thyroid function (hyperthyroidism in GD, normal function or subclinical hypothyroidism in HT with possible evolution towards manifest hypothyroidism). Celiac disease (CD) is a systemic autoimmune disease caused by gluten ingestion in genetically predisposed subjects, its prevalence is around 1% in Western Countries. It presents with a pathognomonic enteropathy, a variety of clinical manifestations, positivity for specific antibodies, positivity for typical haplotypes HLA DQ2/DQ8. The clinical manifestations may vary among four types: typical, atypical, silent and latent. Diagnosis can be made in presence of specific histopathologic findings in duodenal biopsies and antibodies positivity. Celiac disease is associated to various endocrine autoimmunities such as thyropathies, diabetes mellitus type 1, Addison disease, multiendocrine syndromes. The most frequent associated thyropaties are HT and GD. The present review aims to explore the associations between thyropathies and celiac disease in pediatric age.

Acute appendicitis has been considered by surgeons a progressive disease leading to perforation for more than 100 years. In the last decades the theories about this concept gained attention, especially in adults. However, appendectomy for acute appendicitis remains the most common urgent/emergent surgical procedure. At present, accumulating evidences are showing the changing in clinical practice towards the non-operative management of several cases of acute appendicitis either non-complicated or complicated. The present review aims to show the literature results regarding the non-operative management of acute appendicitis in non-complicated and in complicated cases.

Upper-GI diseases are one of the most relevant issue in primary care. Nowadays they are still responsible for about 100 million ambulatory care visits only in the US. The diagnosis of almost every upper-GI condition is still deputed to invasive tests such as upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, gastroesophageal manometry or radiography. The possibility of analysing serum markers like Pepsinogens I and II, produced by gastric mucosa, in order to assess the functional characteristics of the upper GI tract has spread itself since the 80's especially in the diagnosis of peptic ulcer. The discovery of Helicobacter pylori by Marshall and Warren in 1983 and the scientific consecration of its role in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer and peptic ulcer (crystallized in Peleo Correa's Cascade, 1992), led to an increase importance of non-invasive tests, raising the attention towards the assessment of both immunoglobulins anti-H.p. and Gastrin hormone produced by antral G cells, as an implementation of the panel of gastric markers. This narrative review aims to analyze the huge landscape of non-invasive tests for diagnosis of GI diseases, studying the literature of the recent years.