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Appropriately designed and implemented climate mitigation actions have multiple co-benefits (yet some trade-offs cannot be excluded) that result in substantial social and economic value beyond their direct impact on reducing energy consumption and GHG emissions. Despite their wider acknowledgement by the research community, decision makers and the public have incomplete information on these multiple effects. This paper has a twofold objective: First, through analytical bottom-up approaches, it assesses, in quantitative terms, the macroeconomic effects and the public health benefits attributed to a variety of mitigation actions under consideration in the context of the Greek Energy and Climate Plan. Second, it investigates, through a social survey, how citizens perceive climate change and value these multiple impacts of mitigation actions, and to what extent they are willing to pay for them and support the adoption of policy measures aiming at the green transition of the Greek economy. We show that mitigation actions bring about significant health benefits, particularly in cities, and generate significant positive macroeconomic effects, particularly if mitigation actions focus on the decarbonization of the building sector and on the exploitation of local renewable sources. We also argue that most people do not realize that climate mitigation actions can have wider benefits for society, such as tackling energy poverty, improving public health, and creating new jobs. Unwillingness to pay tends to be the prominent attitude. People who are more reluctant to cover a part of the cost of environmental protection are less likely to perceive that climate change is one of the main challenges at global and national level and support the adoption of climate mitigation policies. In this context, the national strategy for climate change should focus on effectively informing and engaging the public in climate mitigation strategies, strengthening the public trust in government institutions, promoting mutually acceptable solutions with the local communities, and providing incentives for changing citizens' behavior towards climate-related actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we outline a transdisciplinary approach and design thinking methodology (TADTM) to tackle complex problems. Our premise is that these problems need a fundamental understanding of technological solutions and those for human interactions, business operations, financing, socioeconomic governance, legislation, and regulations. They must be approached by different decisionmakers from different disciplines to establish seamless interactions and structured teamwork. In this regard, we emphasize the need for a transdisciplinary framework that accounts for personal preferences based on human behavior as well as the traditional interdisciplinary frameworks. To test and prove our hypothesis, three case studies are discussed. Case Study 1 is based on our studies at a major medical establishment, and Case Study 2 is about the integrated engineering and architecture approach we used at our university campus. Case Study 3 is based on an ongoing project to lead industrial corporations to change their energy policies with practical energy efficiency measures and by adapting renewable/alternative energy adaptations for their operations. Developing creative solutions and strategies to decrease atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions requires such an energy transition framework and should involve every person, company, entity, and all governments. It can only be achieved with efforts on both local and global levels, which needs to convince (a) industries to change their traditional operation modalities, (b) people to alter their consumption behaviors, and (c) governments to change their rules, regulations, and incentives. The complexity and magnitude of this enormous task demand the coordination and collaboration of all stakeholders, as well as the need for technological innovations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increase in global average temperature, mainly due to the high rate of greenhouse gas emissions, has triggered severe global warming and climate change. In Europe, the building sector accounts for a significant portion of emissions and energy consumption, prompting attention on nearly-zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) and zero-carbon buildings, as they play a pivotal role in reaching the goal of climate neutrality by 2050. Passive systems offer a promising solution, optimizing energy usage by better adapting buildings to their local climates. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art of passive heating and cooling techniques, exploring their contributions to contemporary architecture and showcasing their features and adaptability across different climates. Furthermore, the link between traditional and bioclimatic architecture is assessed. Recent years have witnessed a surge in publications on bioclimatic solar passive strategies, reflecting an intensified debate on climate change. Europe leads research in this area, aligned with initiatives like the Green Deal and Fit for 55. While dynamic simulation software is widely utilized for energy efficiency analysis, there remains limited integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and life cycle analysis (LCA) tools, which could enhance holistic assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of geological formations, distinguished by natural porosity and permeability and protected by low-permeability caprock, has emerged as an effective strategy for carbon dioxide (CO2) storage. This method significantly contributes to mitigating anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions and addressing the challenges of climate change. Recent research has unveiled the potential of CO2 to enhance geothermal heat energy extraction in geothermal reservoirs by acting as a subsurface heat exchange fluid. This review paper explores the viability of CO2 in augmenting geothermal heat energy extraction, comparing it to conventional water-based geothermal systems. Special emphasis is placed on CO2 plume geothermal (CPG) systems, characterized by rapid deployment and long-term utilization of geothermal energy resources. With the overarching objective of establishing net-zero energy communities, the analysis of such systems offers a comprehensive understanding of their features, providing a fresh perspective on extracted energy within the context of energy supply in integrated, sustainable energy in built systems. Notably, these systems demonstrate efficacy in meeting the power requirements of an energy community, spanning both distinct heating and electricity needs. However, the key challenge lies in selecting suitable locations. This scientific review aims to comprehend the characteristics of CPG under specific temperature and pressure conditions while optimizing subsurface permeability. This insight is pivotal for identifying future locations for CPG operations with the intent of powering small energy communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores the role of electricity in the transition to renewable energy to mitigate climate change. A systematic literature review with the Scopus database identified 92 papers relevant to the renewable electricity transition. A PESTLE (Political, Economic, Sociological, Technological, Legal, and Environmental) review of the papers provided a multidisciplinary analysis. The Paris Agreement created a global movement for carbon neutrality to address the threats of climate change, calling for a transition to renewable electricity to lead the way and expand into new sectors and regions. Although smaller renewable technologies are ramping up, complexities thwarting the transition include locked-in assets, high upfront costs, variability of solar and wind energy, infrastructure, difficulty in decarbonizing transportation and industry, material resource constraints, and fossil fuel support. This research found that renewables are not replacing fossil fuels to date but adding further energy demands, so that greenhouse gas emissions rose in 2021 despite an increased renewable electricity share. Without a major shift in the trillions of dollars of subsidies and investment away from fossil fuels to renewables, catastrophic climate change is predicted. This paper found that the Paris Agreement's commitment to net-zero carbon and the transition to renewable electricity are undermined by record-high levels of subsidies and financing for fossil fuel industry expansion. Transitioning to a climate-neutral economy requires an investment away from fossil fuels into renewable energy ecosystems. Renewable electricity provides possibilities to realize sustainable development goals, climate stabilization, job creation, a green economy, and energy security with careful planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to the pressing global challenges around climate change and the imperative of transitioning the energy market towards sustainability, this paper presents a comprehensive review starting from the late 18th century. The study examines the pivotal role of Transmission System Operators (TSOs) and Distribution System Operators (DSOs) in shaping the evolving energy landscape, with a specific emphasis on the C+++ Framework. This framework emphasizes coordination, cooperation, and collaboration between TSOs and DSOs to achieve sustainable energy systems through the integration of renewable energy technologies, storage systems, and efficient energy demand management. In addition, the review provides a historical overview of global warming from 1800 to the present, highlighting key events and developments related to greenhouse gas emissions. Furthermore, the paper delves into the significance of international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions for a sustainable future. Recognizing the vital role of the C+++ Framework, the paper concludes with a discussion of future hybrid sustainable technologies incorporating various storage and efficient lighting technologies that can optimize energy management and reduce carbon emissions. This research aims to contribute valuable insights to inform energy policy and decision-making processes for a reliable, efficient, and sustainable energy delivery system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capturing and storing CO2 (CCS) was once regarded as a significant, urgent, and necessary option for reducing the emissions of CO2 from coal and oil and gas industries and mitigating the serious impacts of CO2 on the atmosphere and the environment. This recognition came about as a result of extensive research conducted in the past. The CCS cycle comes to a close with the last phase of CO2 storage, which is accomplished primarily by the adsorption of CO2 in the ocean and injection of CO2 subsurface reservoir formation, in addition to the formation of limestone via the process of CO2 reactivity with reservoir formation minerals through injectivities. CCS is the last stage in the carbon capture and storage (CCS) cycle and is accomplished chiefly via oceanic and subterranean geological sequestration, as well as mineral carbonation. The injection of supercritical CO2 into geological formations disrupts the sub-surface's existing physical and chemical conditions; changes can occur in the pore fluid pressure, temperature state, chemical reactivity, and stress distribution of the reservoir rock. This paper aims at advancing our current knowledge in CO2 injection and storage systems, particularly CO2 storage methods and the challenges encountered during the implementation of each method and analyses on how key uncertainties in CCS can be reduced. CCS sites are essentially unified systems; yet, given the scientific context, these storage systems are typically split during scientific investigations based on the physics and spatial scales involved. Separating the physics by using the chosen system as a boundary condition is a strategy that works effectively for a wide variety of physical applications. Unfortunately, the separation technique does not accurately capture the behaviour of the larger important system in the case of water and gas flow in porous media. This is due to the complexity of geological subsurface systems, which prevents the approach from being able to effectively capture the behaviour of the larger relevant system. This consequently gives rise to different CCS technology with different applications, costs and social and environmental impacts. The findings of this study can help improve the ability to select a suitable CCS application method and can further improve the efficiency of greenhouse gas emissions and their environmental impact, promoting the process sustainability and helping to tackle some of the most important issues that human being is currently accounting global climate change. Though this technology has already had large-scale development for the last decade, some issues and uncertainties are identified. Special attention was focused on the basic findings achieved in CO2 storage operational projects to date. The study has demonstrated that though a number of CCS technologies have been researched and implemented to date, choosing a suitable and acceptable CCS technology is still daunting in terms of its technological application, cost effectiveness and socio-environmental acceptance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With climate change, more intense weather phenomena can be expected, including pressure drops related to the arrival of an atmospheric front. Such drops of pressure are the main reason for gas emissions from closed mines to the surface, and a closed, empty mine shaft is the most likely route of this emission. Among the gases emitted, the most important are carbon dioxide and methane, creating a twofold problem—greenhouse gas emissions and gas hazards. The work presented in this paper simulated the spread of the mentioned gases near such an abandoned shaft for four variants: model validation, the most dangerous situations found during measurements with or without wind, and a forecast variant for a possible future pressure drop. It was found that a momentary CO2 emission of 0.69 m3/s and a momentary CH4 emission of 0.29 m3/s are possible, which for one hour of the appropriate drop would give hypothetically 2484 m3 CO2 and 1044 m3 CH4. In terms of gas hazards, the area that should be monitored and protected may exceed 25 m from a closed shaft in the absence of wind influence. The wind spreads the emitted gases to distances exceeding 50 m but dilutes them significantly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the energy crisis and climate change due to pollution, and given that the largest emissions of greenhouse gases are produced by the energy industry, we must turn our attention to the efficient use of solar energy, which is the cleanest and most abundant of all renewable energies. In this paper, based on an analysis of the specialized literature, we studied the effect of dust accumulation on the surface of photovoltaic modules on some performance characteristics and on the efficiency of these panels and modules compared to the efficiency of clean modules. We analyzed the cause of dust accumulation and the influence of the tilt angles of the photovoltaic panels on the dust deposition rate. We highlighted the influence of atmospheric temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity depending on the density of the dust deposited on the surface of the photovoltaic panel, and we found a decrease in the efficiency of the panel based on the increase in dust density for slightly high values of solar radiation, wind speed, and relative humidity. We highlighted the reduction in CO2 emissions by replacing electricity from fossil fuels with solar energy. The efficient use of solar energy is a solution for the decarbonization of the energy sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Considering the negative effect of anthropological activities on climate in recent decades, all countries entailed a universal commitment to fight against climate change by boosting innovation and introducing new technologies. In this context, our paper aimed to investigate the impact of innovation input in terms of research and development (R&D) costs and technology expressed as technical equipment and machinery (TEM) on the reported greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in chemical industry companies in five Central and Eastern European countries. This study employed a panel regression model with fixed effects and covered data from 2015 to 2020. The empirical results emphasize a negative relationship between R&D costs and GHG emissions, indicating the companies' commitment to developing innovative solutions that contribute to lower destructive emissions. Additionally, the findings related to the influence of TEM on GHG emissions reveal a positive impact, highlighting the need to improve manufacturing technologies. The practical implications of our findings can be meaningful for both policymakers and businesses operating in the chemical industry in developing countries. Policymakers should offer financial incentives to support research and investments in clean technologies, while businesses should prioritise such investments to mitigate GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is progressing faster than previously envisioned. Efforts to mitigate the challenges of greenhouse gas emissions by countries through the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has resulted in continuous environmental improvements in the energy efficiency and carbon emission signatures of products. In this paper, an energy–carbon emissions nexus causal model was applied using the Leontief Input–Output mathematical model for low-carbon products in future transport-manufacturing industries., The relationship between energy savings, energy efficiency, and the carbon intensity of products for the carbon emissions signature of the future transport manufacturing in South Africa was established. The interrelationship between the variables resulted in a 29% improvement in the total energy intensity of the vehicle body part products, 7.22% in the cumulative energy savings, and 16.25% in the energy efficiency. The scope that has been examined in this paper will be interesting to agencies of government, researchers, policymakers, business owners, and practicing engineers in future transport manufacturing and could serve as a fundamental guideline for future studies in these areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture is the second-highest, after energy use, source of greenhouse gas emissions, which are released from soils and animal digestion processes and as a result of energy consumption at various stages of agricultural production. However, changes in the management of agricultural systems may mitigate the negative impact of this sector on the atmosphere and climate. This paper presents a literature review on energy consumption in agriculture and the potential of agricultural crop production to assist in mitigation of global warming by increasing absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere. The issue was considered in the context of managing the cultivation of main, catch and cover crops. The potential of carbon sequestration in the above- and below-ground biomass of selected crops was analyzed. It was stated that, depending on the species, main crops can sequester up to 113 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 in whole biomass, while catch or cover crops can sequester up to 14.80 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 and 0.17 CO2 ha−1 yr−1 in the above- and below-ground biomass, respectively. The benefits of the spread of catch or cover crops, such as improvement of soil quality (leading to an increase in primary crop yield by even as much as 65%) and a phytosanitary effect, as well as the barriers that limit the use of catch crops, including the problems with matching crop species to climate and soil conditions and the risk of reducing farmers' income, were considered. The results of the review show that catch crops can assimilate an additional amount of 4 to 6 tonnes CO2 ha−1 yr−1, and thus, spreading of catch crops is an effective way to reduce the climate impact of agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current geopolitical landscape of the European Union has made it clear that the energy sector must be a top priority in EU policy, especially in light of the sudden escalation of Russian–Ukrainian conflicts. Energy efficiency has been used as the first tool of EU policy to tackle energy and climate crises, given the issues surrounding energy vulnerability and the need to limit gas emissions that contribute to climate change. The white certificate mechanism in Italy has played a pivotal role in encouraging measures to achieve the country's energy-saving goals. Given the high energy requirements of Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), especially for aeration in the biological section, this paper examines the replacement of the air distribution system for a large WWTP as a viable intervention. In order to provide economic perspective for the plant, both the discounted Payback Period (dPBP) and the Net Present Value (NPV) were calculated for the investment. When viewed through an economic lens, the dPBP metric exhibits values that span from less than 1 year to nearly 4.5 years. Additionally, the investment's cost-effectiveness was emphasized by the NPV, which, depending on the factors considered, can exceed 17.5 million euros. Finally, given the centrality of the theme of climate change, the avoided greenhouse gas emissions generated by the efficiency intervention were calculated, according to the GHG Protocol, resulting in a quantity of avoided emissions equivalent to over 57,770 tonnes of CO2e. These results highlight important achievements in terms of both the cost-effectiveness of the plant and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing demand for food, the lack of natural resources and arable land, and the recent restrictions on energy consumption require an immediate solution in terms of agricultural activities. This paper's objective was to review hydroponics (a new soilless cultivation technology) and compare it with conventional agriculture (soil cultivation) regarding its environmental impact and water and energy consumption. The soil loss, the crop/soil contamination, and the greenhouse gas emissions were the criteria for the environmental comparison of conventional agriculture and hydroponics. As for resource consumption, the water consumption rates (L/kg), energy consumption rates (kWh), and energy required (kW) were the criteria for comparing conventional agriculture with hydroponics. Tomato and cannabis cultivation were used as case studies in this review. The review results showed that the advantages of hydroponics over conventional cultivation include zero-soil cultivation, land-use efficiency, planting environment cleanliness, fertilizer and resource saving, water consumption reduction, and conservation. The disadvantages of hydroponics versus conventional cultivation were found to include the high investment costs, technical know-how requirements, and higher amount of demanded energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the challenge of global warming, the European Union (EU) signed the Paris Agreement (2015) to diminish total Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. This paper addresses the conflict that EU member states face when they want to follow the target of the Paris Agreement for the period 2021–2030 which is a 55% GHG emission reduction by 2030 (compared with GHG emission in 1990). EU member states have to emit at a level that is lower than their emission needs. To solve this problem, we implement the claims problems approach as a method for distributing insufficient resources among parties with greater demands. We use several well-known division rules to divide the emission budget among EU member states. We define a set of principles that should be satisfied by division rules to select the most optimal allocation method. To diminish the effect of countries' preferences on the allocation we use equity and stability criteria to examine the fairness of the rules. Moreover, we allocate the emission budget in two ways: First, we apply division rules to allocate the total emission budget for 2021–2030 among countries. Second, we allocate the emission budget annually from 2021 to 2030. We propose that Constrained Equal Awards (CEA) is an appropriate division rule to meet the target of 2030. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Combating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has become an obligation for countries that ratified the Paris Agreement. Saudi Arabia, as a member of the Paris Agreement, pledged to achieve net zero emissions (NZE) by 2060. This endeavor is challenging for all countries. This paper provides an analysis and assessment of the Saudi measures to achieve NZE by 2060. The analysis reveals that Saudi Arabia will reduce the total net emissions to 49.67 Mt of CO2eq, whereas under a business-as-usual scenario, the emissions would reach 1.724 million tons (Mt) of CO2 equivalent (CO2eq). The study reveals that sectors conducting environmental, social, and governance ratings (ESG) and those where the government is a stakeholder are on the right track and will facilitate the government's efforts in reaching NZE. The gap in reaching NZE will be mainly due to the Saudi steel and cement industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University campuses represent a heterogeneous ecosystem as to social, economic, energetic, and personal travel planning with a huge impact on hosting cities and territories. Sustainable policies are thus fundamental to reduce this impact and to adopt ecological behaviors. The measures for any University Sustainability Plan should be evaluated in terms of GHG emissions, as well as the overall impact of the university itself. Carbon footprint (CF) calculation is a relevant Decision Support tool that allows university organizations to measure and communicate the environmental effects of their activities. The aim of this paper is to present a carbon footprint methodology specifically designed to calculate the carbon footprint of large universities. The methodology was applied to calculate the CF of the University of Bologna by following international standards—i.e., the GHG protocol, the ISO 14064, and the ISO/TR 14069 guide—to understand the environmental impact caused by greenhouse gas emissions from direct and indirect university activities. The study was conducted upon the data available in 2020 and then was compared to the 2018 data, with the aim to recognize if the effect of the pandemic could have altered the results. In 2020, the University of Bologna emitted 16,467 tCO2e which became 15,753 tCO2e considering the offset and avoided emission provided by the internal production of energy from renewable sources. Comparison between 2020 and 2018 shows how, in 2018, most of the emissions came from transportation, representing 74% of the total emissions, while in 2020 almost 50% of total emissions derived by IT procurements. The case application demonstrates the way with which the methodology may be applied to assess environmental impact for complex university campuses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's economy has made significant strides in the past three decades. As a direct result of China's "one belt, one road" (OBOR) initiative, the country's rate of industrialization and urbanization is currently the fastest in the entire world. This rapid development is largely dependent on the enormous amounts of energy currently being consumed and forms the foundation of the world's high levels of carbon emissions. It is generally agreed that the production of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, is the primary contributor to the current state of climate change. In this paper, a CO2 emission prediction model based on Bi-LSTM is constructed. In order to conduct empirical tests on the model, this study uses data from South Asian countries and China from 2001 to 2020. China's CO2 emissions from 2022 to 2030 were predicted along with those of other countries in order to study the combined effects of the scientific and technological progress, industrial structures, and energy structure factors affecting CO2 emissions. When compared with the LSTM and GRU methods, the Bi-LSTM model's results produced lower MAE, MSE, and MAPE values, indicating that it performs better. According to the findings, carbon emissions represent a significant problem that will become much worse in the future due to China and India's high emissions, particularly in the next 10 years, if the government does not implement policies that help reduce those emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is related to global climate change. Carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) is an important technology to reduce CO2 emissions and to deal with global climate change. The development of new materials and technologies for efficient CO2 capture has received increasing attention among global researchers. Ionic liquids (ILs), especially functionalized ILs, with such unique properties as almost no vapor pressure, thermal- and chemical-stability, non-flammability, and tunable properties, have been used in CCUS with great interest. This paper focuses on the development of functionalized ILs for CO2 capture in the past decade (2012~2022). Functionalized ILs, or task-specific ILs, are ILs with active sites on cations or/and anions. The main contents include three parts: cation-functionalized ILs, anion-functionalized ILs, and cation-anion dual-functionalized ILs for CO2 capture. In addition, classification, structures, and synthesis of functionalized ILs are also summarized. Finally, future directions, concerns, and prospects for functionalized ILs in CCUS are discussed. This review is beneficial for researchers to obtain an overall understanding of CO2-philic ILs. This work will open a door to develop novel IL-based solvents and materials for the capture and separation of other gases, such as SO2, H2S, NOx, NH3, and so on. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of globalisation-induced greenhouse gas emissions is an ongoing topic and a major challenge to the EU climate goals of achieving non-zero emissions by 2050. In the light of this ongoing debate on the globalisation–environment nexus, the paper examines the impact of economic globalisation on climate in EU countries over the period 2000–2019 and provide some new empirical evidence. After applying the panel cointegration analysis and the Granger causality test, the dynamic panel analysis is performed for 26 EU countries using the Arellano–Bond estimator. For the policy perspective, the analysed sample of countries is grouped into two subpanels according to their level of development—EU countries with above-average and below-average GDP per capita. After testing the effects of different dimensions of economic globalisation and environmental taxes on GHG emissions, the results revealed the following: (1) Trade globalisation is detrimental to the climate, as trade openness significantly increases emissions in both country groups. Financial globalisation has a weaker impact and increases emissions only in below-average countries, suggesting that FDI inflows could be important for the transfer of green technologies when a country reaches higher development level. (2) Passenger transport reduces GHG emissions in both groups of countries, while FDI are beneficiary for the climate in above-average countries. (3) Environmental taxes as a proxy for environmental policy show statistically significant results, but with different outcomes in the two groups; they have a negative impact on emissions in countries that are below the GDP p/c average, indicating the shortcomings of the tax system in addressing climate change. (4) The total energy consumption increases emissions in both country groups and, thus, harms the climate. Therefore, despite the current unfavourable circumstances, EU countries should continue to expand the green economy, increase energy consumption from renewables, and develop low-carbon technologies that do not depend on imported fossil fuels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is an issue nowadays present in almost all of the media daily, but information can be manipulated very easily. It is a fact that, in the last decades, greenhouse gas emissions have multiplied, and to tackle climate change efficiently, it is necessary to analyze their origin and their relationship with regards to countries, population, production, etc. When analyzing a country's emissions, not only the total emissions, but also the emissions in relation to its population, production, etc., should be considered. In this paper, a new parameter (CE2N) that merges total emissions, and emissions per capita and per GDP is proposed and applied, obtaining, for the first time, a unified and universal parameter that considers the emission efficiency and total emissions at the same time and can be used in all countries. We validated this new parameter with its implementation in previous environmental models, and the results obtained showed that CE2N would help to increase the transparency and objectivity of these models, giving more weight to emission efficiency, rather than other, more subjective criteria previously used. In addition, CE2N could be implemented in future international agreements, being beneficial not only for the scientific community, but also for policymakers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For some time, there has been a slow but gradual rise in the average temperature of the entire globe, a "global warming", in fact, the result of human and natural processes that have been producing this phenomenon for decades. Since they are not directly perceived by individuals, these processes and their effects have been ignored for a long time, or at least not considered to be immediately harmful and dangerous. Global warming does not depend so much on solar radiation as it does on the greenhouse effect deriving from the continuous emission, by human activities and natural events, of greenhouse gases that accumulate in the atmosphere and form a barrier to the dispersion of heat produced by solar radiation. A good number of models exists to explain how global warming is produced, which are technical in nature and consider the production of greenhouse gases as the most important cause; however, they do not always analyze and justify the reasons for such emissions. Following the logic, language and methods of Senge's systems thinking, the paper aims to present a general model, the GEAM—qualitative in nature, but rational and coherent—for highlighting the interacting factors that give rise to and maintain global warming. This model constitutes a reference framework to identify possible "strategic areas" within which to identify man-made "artificial" and "natural" factors that can control the phenomenon and to order the countless ideas and interventions that different nations carry out individually to control global warming. The model presented is qualitative in nature and does not allow immediate calculations or forecasts to be performed. However, it could guide in-depth scientific research in generating accurate forecasts and simulation using the tools of systems dynamics. In conclusion, understanding how global warming is created and if and how it could be controlled is the aim of this work. Finally, I want to note that the purpose of this work is not to analyze the technical aspects of the phenomenon of global warming, or to deepen the measures and actions to contrast it, but to provide a "general model of description and understanding" of the phenomenon using logic and language of the Systems Thinking Approach (according to Peter's Senge and Piero Mella), with the aim of highlighting three fundamental strategic areas for countering the phenomenon and four uncontrollable phenomena, triggered by global warming itself, which can make strategic control difficult. Furthermore, I highlight the role played by the world population, understood both quantitatively as a number and qualitatively as a level of economic development, in the production of global warming. Lastly, I observe how the different strategic actions that nations can, indeed must, implement to stem global warming are systematically interconnected and interacting; however, these interactions can produce unknown effects and consequences that must be carefully researched and evaluated—encouraged, if positive, reduced or eliminated if negative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses decomposition analysis to investigate the key contributions to changes in greenhouse gas emissions in different scenarios. We derive decomposition formulas for the three highest-emitting sectors: power generation, industry, and transportation (both passenger and freight). These formulas were applied to recently developed 1.5 °C emission scenarios by the Integrated Model to Assess the Global Environment (IMAGE), emphasising the role of renewables and lifestyle changes. The decomposition analysis shows that carbon capture and storage (CCS), both from fossil fuel and bioenergy burning, renewables and reducing carbon intensity provide the largest contributions to emission reduction in the scenarios. Efficiency improvement is also critical, but part of the potential is already achieved in the Baseline scenario. The relative importance of different emission reduction drivers is similar in the OECD (characterised by relatively high per capita income levels and emissions) and non-OECD (characterised by relatively high carbon intensities of the economy) region, but there are some noteworthy differences. In the non-OECD region, improving efficiency in industry and transport and increasing the share of renewables in power generation are more important in reducing emissions than in the OECD region, while CCS in power generation and electrification of passenger transport are more important drivers in the OECD region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emissions of fluorinated greenhouse gases (F-gases), which are used as replacements for ozone-depleting substances, have risen sharply since 1995. The rapid increase in F-gas emissions coupled with their global warming potential (GWP) has led to increased worldwide attention to monitoring emission levels and subsequently regulating the use of F-gases. These restrictions apply in particular to applications for which alternative technologies are available that are more economically efficient and have minor or no impact on the Earth's climate system. This paper brings new information about changes in composition of consumed F-gases in the Czech Republic. Since no F-gases are produced in the country, data about F-gas consumption are obtained from three resources which give information about import and export. The paper also describes implementation of newly used F-gases, which are used as replacements for specific F-gases, into emission calculation models. Emissions are estimated according to the methodology developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Although consumption of F-gases with high GWP has already started decreasing, it will have no effect on F-gas emissions for several years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy-related investments gain increasing attention nowadays, particularly in Poland due to clean-energy investment needed to limit greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and counteract climate change. However, economic appraisal is problematic: the longevity of impacts inextricably involves intergenerational ethical considerations. A crucial parameter is the choice of a discount rate. The predominant approach to estimate the discount rate in EU countries is the Ramsey rule, based on macroeconomic data, but not referring directly to society's preferences. Those are considered by studies using surveys to elicit individual discount rates (IDR), but rarely concentrating on intergenerational time frame. The paper aims at delivering an insight into the intergenerational intertemporal preferences for Poland (households, n = 471) focusing on whether respondents are willing to declare zero discount rate intergenerationally and whether their choices differ between the short- and long-term perspectives and between human lives and money. To elicit IDR, two hypothetical investment scenarios were designed: lifesaving programs and lottery gains with delays from 10 to 150 years accompanied by attitude and socioeconomic questions. The results indicate that IDR follows hyperbolic time-decline, and a considerable share of respondents (around 20%) are willing to treat future generations as equally important in the case of human lives, while this proportion for monetary gains is two times lower. The IDR drivers differ between lives and money in respect of socioeconomic profile and attitude characteristics as well as between intragenerational and intergenerational time frames. The findings support (a) the rationale for distinct treatment of intergenerational allocations, (b) the divergence of preferences between public and private impacts, and (c) the switch from single to declining discount rate regime in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Built environment carbon reduction strategies materialize predominantly in city-level greenhouse gas (GHG) management, where new residential development appears as one of the key instruments. However, city-level assessments are often incapable of producing data at a community or neighborhood level and thus they may heavily underestimate the emissions from new construction. This paper explores the implications of low-energy residential construction as an instrument of climate change mitigation in the built environment and demonstrates why city-level approaches easily fail to identify the significance of the emissions from construction. We employ a hybrid life cycle assessment (LCA) approach to demonstrate that, when the temporal allocation of emissions from the construction and use phases is taken into account, construction phase emissions come to have a central role in finding effective GHG mitigation strategies-even when the emissions from all consumption activities during the use phase are included in the assessment. In fact, their role would seem to be so central that new residential construction cannot be utilized as an instrument of city carbon management, even over a relatively long period. While we analyze a case study from Finland, the analysis intends to highlight the situation throughout the globe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Buildings contribute to greenhouse gas emissions that cause environmental impacts on climate change. Net Zero Energy (NZ) buildings would reduce greenhouse gases. The current definition of NZ lacks consensus and has created uncertainties, which cause delays in the adoption of NZ. This paper proposes a Process for Clarification to Accelerate the Net Zero (PC-A-NZ) through three integrated steps: variations, strategies, and requirements. We expand on the results in published NZ literature to clarify the differences in definition and strategy. The objective of this review is to (1) distinguish current variable parameters that are slowing the acceptance of NZ, and (2) focus the discussion internationally on moving faster toward applying NZ to a larger common agreement. The publications of global NZ target assessment and energy efficient strategies will be reviewed to address the main requirements in expediting NZ's successful progress. Our NZ review analysis highlights (1) how the existing NZ definitions and criteria differ, (2) how calculation strategies vary, and (3) how standards and requirements are often localized. The proposed PC-A-NZ will help policymakers and stakeholders to re-evaluate the existing definitions, standards, and requirements to optimize the use of renewable technologies, improved energy efficiency and electrification to speed up achieving the NZ targets. Definition: There are multiple NZ definitions that vary in source and supply requirement, timescale, emission source, and grid connection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy production is gaining importance in the context of global climate changes. However, in some countries other aspects increasing the role of renewable energy production are also present. Such a country is Ukraine, which is not self-sufficient in energy supply and whose dependency on poorly diversified import of energy carriers regularly leads to political tensions and has socio-economic implications. Production of agricultural biogas seems to be a way to both slow down climatic changes and increase energy self-sufficiency by replacing or complementing conventional sources of energy. One of the most substantial barriers to agricultural biogas production is the low level of agricultural concentration and significant economies of scale in constructing biogas plants. The aim of the paper was thus to assess the potential of agricultural biogas production in Ukraine, including its impact on energy self-sufficiency, mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the economic performance of biogas plants. The results show that due to the prevailing fragmentation of farms, most manure cannot be processed in an economically viable way. However, in some regions utilization of technically available manure for agricultural biogas production could cover up to 11% of natural gas or up to 19% of electricity demand. While the theoretical potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions could reach 5% to 6.14%, the achievable technical potential varies between 2.3% and 2.8% of total emissions. The economic performance of agricultural biogas plants correlates closely with their size and bioenergy generation potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, atmospheric concentrations of sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are the most potent among the greenhouse gases identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and are still rising. In the EU-28, SF6 has been banned from several applications, however, an important exception is gas-insulated electrical switchgear (GIS) for which cost-effective and environmentally sound alternatives were unavailable when the F-Gas regulation was last revised in 2014. To date, after some recent innovations, we argue that the phasing out of SF6 could spur the accelerated development of alternatives with a lower carbon footprint. In the EU-28, the SF6 amount in switchgear is unclear. In this paper, we estimated the SF6 amount to be between 10,800 and 24,700 t (with a mode at 12,700 t) in 2017, resulting in 68 to 140 t of annual emissions from operational leakage only, corresponding to 1.6 to 3.3 Mt of CO2-eq. We additionally calculated the potential greenhouse gas savings over the lifecycle of one exemplary 145 kV gas-insulated switchgear bay upon replacing SF6 by decafluoro-2-methylbutan-3-one (C5-FK) and heptafluoro-2-methylpropanenitrile (C4-FN) mixtures. Projecting these results over the EU-28, a phase-out scenario starting from 2020 onwards could reduce the carbon footprint by a median of 14 Mt of CO2-eq, over a period of 50 years. Extrapolation to medium voltage could be assumed to be of a similar magnitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of greenhouse gas emissions, CO2 emissions from fuels are not arising only from combustion of the fuels, but also from non-energy use of fuels. In order to keep the inventory transparent, comparable, accurate, consistent, and complete, it is necessary to carefully assess such emissions in order to neither not omit nor double count them. The paper presents the methodological guidance of non-energy use of fuels given by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2006 Guidelines. Further, approaches of the Czech Republic, Slovak Republic, and Hungary, three neighboring countries, for reporting CO2 emissions from non-energy use of fuels are presented and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gases emitted from soil play a crucial role in the atmospheric environment and global climate change. The theory and technique of detecting stable isotopes in the atmosphere has been widely used to an investigate greenhouse gases from soil. In this paper, we review the current literature on greenhouse gases emitted from soil, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). We attempt to synthesize recent advances in the theory and application of stable isotopes in greenhouse gases from soil and discuss future research needs and directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decarbonization by the mid-21st century requires strong commitment to greenhouse emission abatement measures, but national emission reduction pledges are made for the medium term. Achieving medium term targets without taking into account the long term can lead to a lock-in effect, binding countries in pathways that cannot lead to strong decarbonization. This paper sheds light in this issue by combining a theoretical approach with real-world engineering and cost data. We develop a constrained optimization model to examine least-cost greenhouse gas emission abatement pathways, taking into account (a) emission reduction objectives for two years: 2030 and 2050; and (b) the potential speed of implementation of each measure, which expresses technical and behavioural inertia in the deployment of a measure. We focus on European countries and economic sectors that are not subject to the EU Emissions Trading System. We derive relationships between 2030 abatement targets of varying ambition and the possibility for a country to achieve a strong 2050 target. We find that more ambitious EU-wide targets have to be set by 2030 so that Europe delivers deep decarbonization by 2050. Moreover, if air pollution costs are taken into account, strong decarbonization by 2050 has lower social costs than less ambitious policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy services are especially expensive on remote islands due to longer and more unstable fuel supply chains. In this paper, different renewable energy systems utilizing locally available biomass and solar energy are proposed as alternatives for a hotel resort on Neil Island, India. Based on local demand data, commercial information, and scientific literature, four cases are modelled with the simulation software HOMER and their economic, energetic, as well as ecological (3E) performances are compared. The robustness of each case configuration is tested with a sensitivity analysis. The results show that a biomass-based, solar-assisted combined cooling, heating, and power (CCHP) system offers an economic saving potential of more than 500,000 USD over twenty years and could decrease CO2 emissions by 365 t per year. When not applying CCHP measures, system performance is significantly worsened. A solar and battery-assisted diesel generator system shows similar economic outcomes as the CCHP system but worse ecological performance. Implementing the biomass-based CCHP system could improve the ecological footprint of the island, substantially decrease expenditure for the hotel owner, and generate a new source of income for surrounding farmers through biomass selling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper performed comparative assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission trends and climate change mitigation policies in the fuel combustion sector of selected EU member states with similar economic development levels and historical pasts, and implementing main EU energy and climate change mitigation policies, having achieved different success in GHG emission reduction. The impact of climate change mitigation policies on GHG emission reduction was assessed based on analysis of countries' reports to UNFCCC by identifying the key areas of GHG emission reduction, their GHG emission reduction potential, and the driving forces behind them. The study revealed that climate change mitigation policies that have been implemented so far in Bulgaria are less efficient than in Lithuania, as Bulgaria places priorities not on energy efficiency improvement and penetration of renewable energy sources, but on switching from coal to natural gas. The policy implications for strengthening GHG emissions reduction efforts are provided based on analysis conducted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses profound threats to the Earth and its people. Its mitigation, therefore, demands common but differentiated actions with comprehensive and coordinated approach. The global community has pledged to mitigate various greenhouse gases in some international soft law instruments. Exploitation of renewables to generate energy and produce electricity is simultaneously suggested for the last couple of decades as a viable alternative in mitigating climate change. This gets momentum with the adoption of the historical and universally ratified Paris Agreement in 2016 where energy is placed at the heart of the Agreement. Energy, where renewable energy is a branch, is generally regulated and governed domestically and so, international legal regime is still evolving in this regard. In the absence of any specific and direct international instrument on energy and renewable energy, published literatures have considered this topic from different directions ranging from climate change to the principle of national sovereignty, economic, trade and investment issues. In this backdrop, this paper aims to introduce various renewable sources, prospects and challenges in their promotion that may help to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change. Relevant international law provisions have been evaluated, performances of the relevant regional and international organizations active in this sector are highlighted and some of the disputes in this area considered in international forums are duly addressed. It is revealed that strong political will of the global community in fulfilling their commitments made so far in different international forums is the key to transforming the world into a better one for the future generation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate quantification of the distribution and variability of atmospheric CO2 is crucial for a better understanding of global carbon cycle characteristics and climate change. Model simulation and observations are only two ways to globally estimate CO2 concentrations and fluxes. However, large uncertainties still exist. Therefore, quantifying the differences between model and observations is rather helpful for reducing their uncertainties and further improving model estimations of global CO2 sources and sinks. In this paper, the GEOS-Chem model was selected to simulate CO2 concentration and then compared with the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT) observations, CarbonTracker (CT) and the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) measurements during 2009–2011 for quantitatively evaluating the uncertainties of CO2 simulation. The results revealed that the CO2 simulated from GEOS-Chem is in good agreement with other CO2 data sources, but some discrepancies exist including: (1) compared with GOSAT retrievals, modeled XCO2 from GEOS-Chem is somewhat overestimated, with 0.78 ppm on average; (2) compared with CT, the simulated XCO2 from GEOS-Chem is slightly underestimated at most regions, although their time series and correlation show pretty good consistency; (3) compared with the TCCON sites, modeled XCO2 is also underestimated within 1 ppm at most sites, except at Garmisch, Karlsruhe, Sodankylä and Ny-Ålesund. Overall, the results demonstrate that the modeled XCO2 is underestimated on average, however, obviously overestimated XCO2 from GEOS-Chem were found at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere in summer. These results are helpful for understanding the model uncertainties as well as to further improve the CO2 estimation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]