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The preservation of historical traditional architectural ensembles faces multifaceted challenges, and the need for facade renovation and updates has become increasingly prominent. In conventional architectural updating and renovation processes, assessing design schemes and the redesigning component are often time-consuming and labor-intensive. The knowledge-driven method utilizes a wide range of knowledge resources, such as historical documents, architectural drawings, and photographs, commonly used to guide and optimize the conservation, restoration, and management of architectural heritage. Recently, the emergence of artificial intelligence-generated content (AIGC) technologies has provided new solutions for creating architectural facades, introducing a new research paradigm to the renovation plans for historic districts with their variety of options and high efficiency. In this study, we propose a workflow combining Grasshopper with Stable Diffusion: starting with Grasshopper to generate concise line drawings, then using the ControlNet and low-rank adaptation (LoRA) models to produce images of traditional Minnan architectural facades, allowing designers to quickly preview and modify the facade designs during the renovation of traditional architectural clusters. Our research results demonstrate Stable Diffusion's precise understanding and execution ability concerning architectural facade elements, capable of generating regional traditional architectural facades that meet architects' requirements for style, size, and form based on existing images and prompt descriptions, revealing the immense potential for application in the renovation of traditional architectural groups and historic districts. It should be noted that the correlation between specific architectural images and proprietary term prompts still requires further addition due to the limitations of the database. Although the model generally performs well when trained on traditional Chinese ancient buildings, the accuracy and clarity of more complex decorative parts still need enhancement, necessitating further exploration of solutions for handling facade details in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improving the energy efficiency of buildings is one of the main challenges facing Europe in the context of climate neutrality policy. In this article, the authors decided to investigate the impact of thermal insulation of building envelopes and the type of ventilation on the energy efficiency of multi-family buildings located in different Polish cities. In accordance with EU directives, economic analyses of the costs incurred during the lifecycle and calculations of C O 2   emissions were carried out for the analyzed facilities. It was determined what measures need to be taken under Polish climatic conditions in order to meet the requirements for improving the energy efficiency of multi-family buildings. The multi-criteria analyses presented in this article provide a voice in the discussion of the issues related to the achievement of the energy performance of buildings with almost zero primary energy demand (nZEB). Based on the conclusions of the research conducted, it was possible to develop general recommendations for investors and designers of multi-family residential buildings characterized by energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The energy efficiency of existing buildings is a crucial factor in addressing energy consumption challenges in European countries, accounting for nearly 40% of the total energy usage. One such country is Cyprus, which faces significant challenges in transforming its existing building stock into energy-efficient and sustainable structures. To face this situation, extensive focus has been made by the government on the energy-efficient retrofit of non-residential public buildings erected before 2010, which lack any energy efficiency measures. This study examines the case of the Pano Polemidia Cultural Hall (PPCH), which represents the building stock of that period. Through the simulation of two scenarios, before and after the adoption of retrofit measures, the existing energy performance is initially evaluated and then the adoption of sustainable solutions, which improve substantially the energy efficiency and can be easily adopted from the relevant authorities, is explored. These retrofit measures include installation of HVAC system, covering of the shell of the building with external thermal insulation, lighting replacement with LED devices, installation of PV system and solar panels, and replacement of the external openings with aluminum windows. The results derived show that the energy consumption of the building was reduced from 468 to 218 kWh/m2·yr, with renewable energy sources (RESs) contributing 177 kWh/m2·yr, the CO2 emissions were reduced from 136.73 to 11.5 kg/m2·yr, while the reduction in energy consumption per sector ranged from 25% in lighting to 83% in hot water. Therefore, it is evident that a comprehensive retrofitting plan can transform the PPCH into a near-zero energy consumption building that also provides value to the local community and can act as a successful example for any other non-residential buildings with similar characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The building operation sector in China represents 22% of the national energy consumption and 22% of the carbon emission, of which urban residential buildings accounted for 24% in 2019. Such figures for the housing sector are projected to increase sharply in the near future, while China aims to peak CO2 emissions by 2030 and reach neutrality before 2060. To reduce the impacts of the urban housing sector and address the energy use and waste generated by large-scale demolition and reconstruction, the central government started promoting the energy retrofit of urban residential buildings, raising such policies to the national strategic level. Jiangsu Province is one of the most urbanised, with a rapid growth in the energy consumption of residential buildings. The Multi-Danyuan and Single-Danyuan Apartment built in 1980–1999 are the most representative residential types in its urban areas. While still adequate functionally, they were designed and built to low energy standards and show significant potential for energy retrofit. Nonetheless, their current performance and energy-saving potential are under-researched, while more detailed and reliable data would be critical to support retrofit design and policy making. This study investigates and characterises the typical use and energy performance of the two building types. Additionally, seven measures and six retrofit scenarios were identified based on the optimal energy reductions and regulations from selected countries. The simulations indicate that, without intervention, the energy consumption of the typical urban residential buildings can reach 122 kWh/m2 under the typical high-energy user scenario. By selecting a set of effective energy-saving measures, the operational energy use for heating and cooling can be reduced by up to 52.4%. Current local standards prove cost-efficient, although less effective in reducing energy use compared to international best practices, indicating potential improvements to the contribution of building retrofit towards achieving the national carbon reduction goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy saving in buildings is essential as buildings' operational energy use constitutes 30% of global energy consumption. Urban building energy modeling (UBEM) effectively understands urban energy consumption. This paper applied UBEM to assess the potential of peak demand reduction and energy saving in a mixed-use community, using 955 residential buildings, 35 office buildings and 7 hotels in Shenzhen, China, as a case study. The building type and period were collected based on the GIS dataset. Then, the baseline models were generated by the UBEM tool—AutoBPS. Five scenarios were analyzed: retrofit-window, retrofit-air conditioner (AC), retrofit-lighting, rooftop photovoltaic (PV), and demand response. The five scenarios replaced the windows, enhanced the AC, upgraded the lighting, covered 60% of the roof area with PV, and had a temperature reset from 17:00 to 23:00, respectively. The results show that using retrofit-windows is the most effective scenario for reducing peak demand at 19.09%, and PV reduces energy use intensity (EUI) best at 29.96%. Demand response is recommended when further investment is not desired. Retrofit-lighting is suggested for its low-cost, low-risk investment, with the payback period (PBP) not exceeding 4.54 years. When the investment is abundant, retrofit-windows are recommended for public buildings, while PV is recommended for residential buildings. The research might provide practical insights into energy policy formulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There have been fruitful publications on thermal comfort of urban residential buildings in China. However, there is a lack of reviews on this topic to perform a comprehensive analysis and find opportunities to meet occupants' thermal comfort needs while improving building energy efficiencies. This paper addresses this issue by presenting a systematic review on the advancements in research on thermal comfort in urban residential buildings in China. Firstly, two common thermal comfort research approaches, i.e., field studies and laboratory studies, are discussed. Secondly, eleven main thermal comfort evaluation indicators are summarized. Finally, this paper analyzes the thermal comfort survey data from different researchers, discusses the impacts of adaptive behaviors on human thermal comfort, and provides recommendations for future research on urban residential thermal comfort. It was found that people have higher and higher requirements for their indoor thermal environment as time goes by, especially in the winter; the thermoneutral temperature is higher in warmer climate regions in the summer but lower in the winter than in colder climate regions; the thermoneutral temperature tends to increase with the indoor air temperature due to an adaptation to the indoor thermal environment. The outcomes of this paper provide valuable information on thermal comfort behaviors of urban residents in different climate zones in China, which can serve as a resource for the academic community conducting future research on thermal comfort and assist policymakers in enhancing building energy efficiencies without compromising the occupants' comfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This survey critically examines the integration of energy management systems within smart residential buildings, serving as key nodes in the smart city network. It systematically maps out the intricate relationships between smart grid technologies, energy storage capabilities, infrastructure development, and their confluence in residential settings. From the evolution of power generation methods, incorporating both traditional and renewable sources, to the cutting-edge progress in energy-efficient transport systems, we assess their cumulative impact on the smart urban environment. While our approach is rooted in theoretical exploration rather than mathematical modeling, we provide a comprehensive review of the prevailing frameworks and methodologies that drive energy management in smart urban ecosystems. We also discuss the implications of these systems on urban sustainability and the critical importance of integrating various energy domains to facilitate effective energy governance. By bringing together a diverse array of scholarly insights, our paper aspires to enhance the understanding of energy interdependencies in smart cities and to catalyze the development of innovative, sustainable policies and practices that will define the future of urban energy management. Through this expanded perspective, we underscore the necessity of cross-disciplinary research and the adoption of holistic strategies to optimize energy usage, reduce carbon footprints, and promote resilient urban living in the era of smart cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Appropriate greening design can enhance the microclimate of residential areas. This study investigated different greening cases for residential buildings in hot summer–cold winter zones. Four sorts of greening layouts were tested in a residential area in Chongqing, China. Arbor–grass mix and arbor–shrub–grass mix showed effective cooling and humidifying effects, and were chosen for further study using the ENVI-met model. The simulations were conducted in Chongqing, comparing sixteen greening cases for determinant and enclosed building forms. Results indicate that the greening design for determinant layout should give priority to ensuring the greening area and shortening the distance from the sidewalk. While enclosed layout should concentrate greening in dense populations, using arbor–shrub–grass mix to improve the wind environment. In cases where the distribution of arbors and shrubs covers a ratio of 7:4, constituting 30% of the overall green space, there is a reduction in environmental temperature by 1.4 °C and in PET by 4.8 °C. This study provides the optimal greening layout for two types of residential areas in China's hot summer–cold winter zones, guiding landscape construction in these residential areas to optimize the microclimate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the effectiveness of different ventilation methods in reducing indoor air pollutants in newly constructed residential buildings, focusing on indoor air quality (IAQ) in Dubai. The paper highlights the growing concern for IAQ in response to residents' increasing awareness of their well-being and environmental sustainability. The study examines the concentrations of formaldehyde (HCHO), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) in bedrooms and living rooms before and after implementing various ventilation methods during the construction phase. The findings indicate that mechanical exhaust ventilation, mainly through bathroom and kitchen exhaust fans, was highly effective in reducing HCHO levels. Combining kitchen and bathroom exhaust fans demonstrated the most significant reduction in HCHO concentrations. Similarly, reductions in VOCs, such as ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylene, were observed with different ventilation methods. Natural ventilation also proved effective in reducing pollutant concentrations. The results emphasize the importance of implementing appropriate ventilation strategies to improve IAQ in residential buildings. However, the study acknowledges the limitations of a single-location measurement and recommends further research to validate the findings across different building types and locations. Additionally, long-term studies are necessary to assess the sustained effects of ventilation methods on IAQ. The study highlights the significance of addressing IAQ concerns in residential buildings and suggests potential research directions to explore other ventilation strategies and their energy efficiency implications. Ultimately, this research contributes to developing healthier and sustainable living environments by promoting effective ventilation strategies to mitigate indoor air pollutants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the history of human civilization, traditional villages and buildings have been significantly threatened by fire. As an essential part of Huizhou traditional architecture, fire seal walls play a crucial role in preserving Huizhou architecture by effectively blocking the spread of fire. However, with economic and social development, the Huizhou fire seal wall's original fire prevention function has been unable to meet the needs of modern fire protection. This study aims to explore the fire performance of different types of Huizhou fire seal walls to provide a reference guide for future fire protection, optimization, and transformation of traditional buildings. In this paper, 3D models of traditional buildings with fire seal walls were built with FDS, and the performance of the different kinds of fire seal walls was simulated under the influence of wind speeds, building spacing, and the height of the vertical ridge of the fire seal wall. The results showed that, under the same conditions, a fire seal wall with a single eave is superior to fire seal walls with quintuple eaves in terms of performance, and fire seal walls with quintuple eaves are superior to fire seal walls with triple eaves in the middle and late stages of a fire. In addition, wind speeds, building spacing, and the height of the vertical ridge have different effects on the fire performance of seal walls. Lower wind speeds can reduce the fire performance of fire seal walls, and no wind and higher wind speeds have no significant effect on the fire performance of fire seal walls, while increasing the height of the vertical ridge and fire spacings appropriately can improve the fire performance of fire seal walls. This study provides a reference guide for future fire protection, optimization, and transformation of Huizhou fire seal walls, which can help improve the fire safety of traditional buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rising energy consumption in residential buildings within the hot summer and cold winter (HSCW) climate zone, driven by occupants' pursuit of improved thermal comfort, necessitates effective energy conservation measures. This study established urban building energy models for 32,145 residential buildings in Changsha City, China, and conducted a comprehensive retrofit analysis of seven energy conservation measures (ECMs). Additionally, the study assessed the impact of residents' conscious energy-saving behaviors concerning air conditioner (AC) control. The research commenced by creating six baseline models representative of the diverse building stock. Identifying seven commonly used ECMs, the study examined the potential of each measure for enhancing energy efficiency. To facilitate the analysis, a dedicated toolkit, AutoBPS-Retrofit, was developed to efficiently modify the baseline model for each ECM. Furthermore, the investigation delved into the investment cost of implementing the ECMs and evaluated their simple payback year (PBP) and net present value (NPV). The results demonstrate that tailored retrofit plans are essential when addressing envelope improvements, varying according to building types and ages. Retrofits targeting lighting systems offer both promising energy savings and favorable economic viability, albeit subject to residents' preferences. Alternatively, upgrading the AC systems emerges as the most energy-efficient approach, yet the economic assessment raises concerns. The study's findings offer practical insights for governments seeking to establish effective carbon reduction goals and policies. Moreover, the research can assist energy-saving institutions, real-estate companies, and stakeholders involved in renovation projects by offering guidance in making informed decisions to enhance energy efficiency in city-scale residential buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is dedicated to research of the impact of the limited heat source capacity on indoor temperature and energy consumption in serial nZEB residential buildings. This is an innovative aspect as it explores the potential design simplification for different locations, allowing for cost optimization and quicker construction timelines. The objective of this paper is to examine the impact of limited heat source capacity by utilizing thermal mass and optimizing the ventilation operation. Numerical results demonstrate that incorporating thermal mass increases heating energy consumption by up to 1%. The study addresses the impact of limited heating capacity on indoor temperatures and the need to manage ventilation's impact during peak temperatures using simulation software IDA ICE. The study reveals that a limited heating capacity reduces energy consumption up to 2.6%, but may result in lower indoor temperatures. By optimizing ventilation strategies, energy consumption can be reduced from 2.4% to 4.4% compared to the suboptimal solution, and from 2.8% to 6.5% compared to the initial case. Parametric analysis reveals optimal ventilation operation change-over point at an outdoor temperature of −17 °C during winter. The research provides practical recommendations for adjusting heating schedules, selecting appropriate heating capacities and implementing optimal ventilation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Electric vehicles (EVs) can provide important flexibility to the integration of local energy generation in buildings. Although most studies considering the integration of EVs and buildings are focused on residential buildings, the number of publications regarding large buildings, in particular, public buildings (PBs), has increased. However, the quantity of studies regarding the integration of EVs and PBs is still limited. Additionally, there are no review studies approaching the integration of EVs and buildings in one single framework. In this sense, this review aims to address the challenges and trends associated with optimizing the charging of EVs in PBs by conducting a systematic review of the existing literature. As contributions, this work develops a review that approaches the integration of EVs and PBs using multiple strategies and structures, presents an integrated picture of the technical and economic constraints, and addresses the future trends and research perspectives related to the subject. Through the use of an open-access search engine (LENS), a cluster of 743 publications was analyzed using two strings and a timeframe restriction. The most important contributions regarding optimization strategies and their evolution are presented, followed by a comparison of the findings with other review papers. As key findings, technical and economic constraints are identified (uncertainties of driving behavior and local generation, battery degradation, "injection tariffs", etc.), as are future trends and perspectives (local generation legislation, incentives for purchasing EVs, energy communities, etc.). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existing building stock faces the challenge of low energy efficiency and requires renovation and upgrading to meet society′s goals of carbon reduction and sustainable development. This study presents an optimization framework utilizing genetic algorithms to develop robust retrofit plans that balance the need for improved energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness considerations for householders, and uncertainties regarding climate conditions. A case study of an aged residential building in a hot and humid region of China is used to demonstrate the proposed method. The optimization results show a potential energy demand reduction of 81.5%. However, due to the relatively long time required to realize economic benefits from high investments, short-term optimization tends to favor solutions with high energy demand and low primary costs. To effectively reduce carbon emissions, it is recommended to consider the long-term economic benefits of retrofits and prioritize solutions with high energy efficiency. However, it is important to acknowledge that the expensive nature of retrofit investments may pose barriers to residents. Society should provide adequate support and guidance to facilitate residential renovation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multifamily buildings account for about half of all residential buildings in Poland and about 70% of the urban population live in them. Most of them require thermal refurbishment. Evaluation of a building's energy performance with the use of correlation models has been very rarely used in relation to buildings in Poland. This method is simple, fast and can improve the decision process on thermal modernisation. It is especially important at the pre-design stage of planned investments. This paper presents an attempt to develop correlations that could be used in the energy assessment of multifamily buildings. For this purpose a dataset containing of 29 audits of multifamily buildings was used. The statistical analysis was performed for buildings before and after planned refurbishment. Obtained relationships showed strong correlation between thermal demand for space heating or domestic hot water and ventilation airflow and thermal transmittance of windows (R2 > 0.6). After designed modernisation the number of strong correlations decreased. Energy for domestic hot water was correlated with the number of inhabitants (R2 = 0.6). Energy for space heating was correlated with the number of users and heated volume of a building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions in the construction industry is one of the daunting challenges to be addressed in the context of global warming. The purpose of these analyses was to examine how the energy class of a multi-family residential building regarding thermal insulation and type of ventilation affects the usable energy demand for heating and ventilation purposes, the length of the heating season, and the amount of demand for energy consumed by auxiliary devices. This article presents the energy analyses of multi-family residential buildings with identical technical parameters located in different locations in Poland. For research purposes, a total of 354 energy balances were compiled, covering 59 meteorological stations, 3 types of ventilation systems, and 2 building insulation standards. This article presents the ways in which the location and energy class of buildings affect the length of the heating season and the demand for energy required for heating and ventilation purposes. The results of the analyses carried out in this article show that the location and the energy class of the building have a significant impact on the demand for primary energy (EP). As a result, it was concluded that when designating a reference building for the energy rating system, its location should be taken into account and reference buildings should be designated considering climate zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article outlines the implementation and use of a large wireless instrumentation solution to collect data over a long time period of a few years for three collective residential buildings. The sensor network consists of a variety of 179 sensors deployed in building common areas and in apartments to monitor energy consumption, indoor environmental quality, and local meteorological conditions. The collected data are used and analyzed to assess the building performance in terms of energy consumption and indoor environmental quality following major renovation operations on the buildings. Observations from the collected data show energy consumption of the renovated buildings in agreement with expected energy savings calculated by an engineering office, many different occupancy patterns mainly related to the professional situation of the households, and seasonal variation in window opening rates. The monitoring was also able to detect some deficiencies in the energy management. Indeed, the data reveal the absence of time-of-day-dependent heating load control and higher than expected indoor temperatures because of a lack of occupant awareness on energy savings, thermal comfort, and the new technologies installed during the renovation such as thermostatic valves on the heaters. Lastly, we also provide feedback on the performed sensor network from the experiment design and choice of measured quantities to data communication, through the sensors' technological choices, implementation, calibration, and maintenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Retrofitting buildings to achieve improved levels of energy performance is a key strategy in the transition to a low-/net zero carbon future. In China, there has been an enormous growth in residential construction in recent decades in response to the country's economic development and population growth. However, although these buildings are structurally solid and have long functional life spans, most have very poor thermal performance. Therefore, they would be very suitable for energy retrofitting. Because of the variety of retrofitting options, it is important to review the retrofit measures, regulations and possible outcomes to find effective, long-term solutions that strike a balance between the energy saved, the carbon emitted and the financial costs over a building's lifetime. This paper reviews suitable retrofit measures for the hot summer–cold winter region of China, because this is an area with huge numbers of residential buildings that are suitable for energy retrofitting. The study explores the current conditions of targeted residential buildings, retrofit schemes, building regulations, and policy gaps towards achieving China's 2060 carbon neutrality goal. The review indicates that current mandatory building energy regulations in this region are not ambitious enough to achieve a significantly lower carbon future, and one-step deep Passivhaus retrofit schemes are recommended to achieve decarbonization goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building a reliable energy model for old residential buildings with insufficient documentation and user assistance is a challenging and time-consuming task. Nevertheless, the ambitious European decarbonization targets require this building stock to be renovated, making energy assessment a key priority. In line with this goal, the following study explores a more simplified and automatic framework to generate a residential building energy model (BEM). The paper's approach is based on the concept of urban building energy modelling (UBEM) archetypes or building prototypes and is customized according to the principles of dynamic simulations performed in the existing BEM software, Integrated Environmental Solutions Virtual Environment IES VE, and Solemma Open Studio. Therefore, based on three real starting inputs, a prototype database (DB) of assigned inputs is generated, i.e., an input matrix, using Google Maps as a geometry source. Other data are drawn from tabular DB. The proposed approach is evaluated by benchmarking the simulation results with precise models and monitoring the data that come from the Horizon2020 project REZBUILD. Nevertheless, a level of simplification is introduced that creates less accurate results for total or system-level energy consumption; this is compensated for using a set of simple calibration steps. The approach gives promising results for daily indoor temperature, making it a suitable indicator for evaluating further retrofitting alternatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cities are currently responsible for an important part of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, justifying the need to develop measures to help them become more sustainable. One of those measures can be to address under-utilized assets in cities, such as derelict buildings with high potential for rehabilitation, and the establishment of new residence hubs within cities. Consequently, this work establishes a novel framework for evaluating the impact of rehabilitating these buildings in an urban area in Lisbon, considering the energy consumption associated with the usage of the dwelling as well as the impact on mobility, since it was considered that these buildings will be occupied by people who currently work nearby but live in the outskirts of Lisbon, favouring an urban planning of proximity between home and work. To this extent, a methodology was developed for selecting the buildings to be analysed and the commuting movements to be replaced. Then, buildings were simulated in an urban building energy modelling (UBEM) tool, considering three rehabilitation scenarios, and the required primary energy, CO2 emissions, and costs were calculated. Regarding mobility, three new scenarios were compared with the current scenario. The results obtained confirm the high potential savings from the rehabilitation of derelict buildings and in the best-case scenario—corresponding to the rehabilitation considering envelope insulation, the installation of efficient windows, and the adoption of a heat pump together with a mobility standard targeting 15 min cities—reductions of 76% in primary energy and 84% in CO2 emissions were achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the randomness of interior combustibles, wall thermal inertia, and opening factor, the fire temperature rise in high-rise residential buildings is uncertain. This study investigated 38 urban high-rise residential buildings, created the probability density functions of fire load density, opening factor, and wall thermal inertia, and constructed random fire scenarios for urban high-rise residential buildings. On this basis, relying on the Latin Hypercube Sampling method, this study further explored the probabilistic model for fire temperature rise in urban high-rise residential buildings under the action of uncertain factors, generated the possible temperature rise curves of fires in urban high-rise residential buildings and their probability distribution, and established the most representative temperature rise curve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stair pressurization systems are designed to create a smoke-proof barrier, preventing the ingress of smoke into staircases within buildings. In tall buildings over 25 m, evacuation strategies can utilize phased or simultaneous evaluation of multiple storeys. This paper examines the performance of a stair pressurization with a differing number of doors open starting from two doors, with an incremental step of two up to a total of 10 doors into the shaft. Simulations using Fire Dynamics Simulation (FDS) have shown that a system that would pass commissioning requirements allows smoke in the shaft if there are more than four doors open simultaneously. The required airflow to prevent smoke ingress was found to be above an average flow speed of 0.7 m/s. Past this limit, the amount of smoke that leaks into the staircases continues to increase as more doors open. The study suggests that standards regarding stair pressurization systems should be updated to account for realistic evacuation scenarios, including the system's cascade settings, number of storeys, and expected evacuation time, as evidenced by the smoke leakage once four doors were open and the drop-in flow rate between two-door and four-door open cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of the article is to assess the suitability of over materials over a hundred years old that are embedded in historic building structures in conditions of contemporary utility challenges in residential and public buildings. It is based on an example of technical condition evaluation of a ceramic staircase erected in 1840 and a structure of two reinforced concrete staircases from the year 1910. As a part of in-situ and laboratory tests, the physical and mechanical parameters of unique historical materials (brick, concrete) were determined. Then the conditions for their incorporation were inventoried and determined in order to save the unique material and technical solutions used in the first half of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century. The article is a summary of the research and analyzes carried out in terms of proper handling of historical materials, buildings and their elements that could still fulfill their original function and be a witness to the history of a certain era. Both a research case and an application case are described here. It will allow for the continuation of these studies directly in the facility, thus assessing the effectiveness and suitability of such methods for use in similar or other situations. The aim of this approach was to introduce a non-invasive reinforcing technique that would not change the valuable and authentic appearance of these historic structures. It would also not change their static schemes, and at the same time would ensure their proper load-bearing capacity, bearing in mind that the materials used here are not equivalent to current regulations and standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision-making in energy retrofit of existing buildings needs to consider the economic and technical criteria, as well as social and environmental ones. The main problems are to define and to aggregate these contradicting issues to support a measurable and verifiable decision process. The working hypothesis of this paper is that the ELECTRE Tri method would respond to the problem. The paper proposes and tests in a real professional environment the ELECTRE Tri method to help choose a retrofit program for collective residential buildings. The evaluation criteria used as performance indicators are defined in consultation with the decision maker and weighted by using the revised Simos' cards method. The paper proposes to construct the renovation scenarios by combining individual actions that are mutually compatible. The methodology, the proposed criteria and the scenarios were successfully applied on a renovation project of a residential assembly composed of three buildings (67 apartments). A new solution to the problem of defining reference scenarios specific to the ELECTRE Tri method is also proposed. The main advantages of the proposed methodology are the formalization of the decision-making process within the framework of energy renovation strategies and the application of a robust multi-criteria analysis method, considering the complexity of the problem. The main drawbacks are the cost (in time and resources) for obtaining the information needed to construct the decision matrix and the precision of the weights of the criteria. The methodology implemented in Python is available in open source. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Solar heat gain and natural ventilation cooling of the indoor environment in buildings are highly influenced by the shading and openable area of windows. In addition to the ambient condition, the Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system's mode of use can affect the windows' performance, especially when multiple modes are used in combination (mixed-mode). Although many studies have investigated the mixed-mode application, their conditions for starting/shutting down HVAC equipment and controlling window ventilation are inconsistent with the relevant codes. Here, we propose a mixed-mode operation that resolves the gap between the air conditioning operation temperature and the adaptive comfort upper temperature. It investigates residential buildings' indoor thermal environment and energy efficiency by combining the effective ventilation opening area ratio (REV) and shading design. Simulation results show that our mixed-mode can reduce the indoor overheating hours by about 50% and the building's energy consumption by about 50%. We thereby conclude that the openable area of exterior windows in residential buildings in Chongqing should not be less than 10% of the room's floor axis area where the exterior windows are located. In general, our study expands the existing knowledge of passive energy-saving measures and provides a method for further research on building energy design in hot summer and cold winter regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The twentieth century started with engineers' new concepts and ideas to develop the built environment, with ideas ranging from reducing weight to automated industrialisation, enhancing energy efficiency, etc. However, they failed to predict the negative impact of automation on the environment and its resources. Therefore, future technologies proposed by engineers should consider the adverse effects on nature and the surrounding ecosystem. Using the science of ecology and integrating it into building typology can help avoid unwanted scenarios. Such technologies prioritise the performance of buildings and cities by using simulation tools to explore more ideas for designing and testing their performance. This work explores the obstacles and challenges opposing the plan to successfully supply Egypt with clean, renewable energy that reaches 42% of its total electricity. Furthermore, some solutions are proposed to tackle those barriers, such as installing thermal cooling systems and ball wind turbines in residential buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building construction in rural Kyrgyzstan is heavily dominated by earthen buildings. Old and inappropriate residential building structures contribute significantly to high domestic space heating energy consumption. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the relevant building construction techniques. However, the scant information on Kyrgyz building techniques, especially for high-altitude rural settlements, was the prime motivation to perform the presented study. The key objective of the study is to investigate residential building construction techniques in high-altitude rural Kyrgyzstan, and this was to be achieved by house visits during field trips, literature review, and pilot interviews with local people. The analysis enabled the detailed identification of individual building envelopes as well as predominant building materials to be recorded. Based on the assessment, a housing profile was created that represents the typical characteristics of traditional rural Kyrgyz houses. Furthermore, the study demonstrates the potential for energy savings in rural Kyrgyz houses of 50–70%. However, local conditions prevent people from making improvements to all domestic energy efficiency parameters simultaneously. Therefore, the study developed a 'sequential roadmap' to reduce domestic space heating demand in different phases based on simulation studies. Existing low-income rural Kyrgyz habitations can use the presented roadmap to reduce domestic space heating demand sequentially to overcome financial barriers and, therefore, contribute to establishing sustainable buildings in Kyrgyzstan. These results may be partially replicated in other Central Asian rural communities depending on their location and building characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research developed an effective environmental temperature control system for homes and buildings. The study used a photovoltaic panel (PV) and developed a solar installation with thermosiphon circulation, which has a flat solar collector and heat-insulating translucent glass with double glazing with reduced pressure. The coolant is made of thin-walled corrugated stainless pipe. The heat from the solar flux heats the liquid removed from the collector, and cold water from the siphon enters its place. There is a constant circulation of heat, which increases heat transfer efficiency by eliminating additional partitions between the panel and thermal insulation. We have also developed a solar system control controller, which includes an electronic unit with six sensors. The six sensors are controlled by the STM32 programmable Logistics Integrated circuit (FPGA), designed to monitor the entire solar system, and the drives include power relays. The performance of the photovoltaic panel and the room's temperature change are calculated during both the simulation and testing of the controller. The standard error was 20% compared to other controllers. During the experiment, the consumption savings amounted to about 1% due to the control signal in the controller, which has a significant impact on the service life of the equipment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge of the influence of factors determining energy consumption in buildings is very important for the possibility of effective energy saving. This article describes the results of an original study on the analysis of the annual energy demand for heating (QH;nd), cooling (QC;nd), and annual usable energy demand (QH/C;nd = QH;nd + QC;nd) assumed as objective functions of a designed single-family building, which can be classified as a typical representative of currently built houses in Poland. It was assumed that the object of study was located in the climatic conditions of north-eastern Poland. The study takes into consideration three groups of selected parameters: architectural/spatial, structural, and physical properties of windows. The research was carried out in a single-family building, as energy consumption in residential buildings accounts for a significant part of the total energy consumption in buildings. In the group of architectural/spatial parameters, the height of rooms in the building (h) and the window area change coefficient (k) were taken into consideration. The design parameters pertained to the solutions of building components: the density of the material of the inner layer of the external walls (ρ1), the density of the material of internal walls (ρ2), and the thickness of internal walls (d). In the third group of parameters, the heat transfer coefficient of the glazing (Ug) and the total solar transmittance of the glazing (g) were considered. Deterministic mathematical models of these dependencies were developed on the basis of the results of a computational experiment, obtained by performing a simulation with the use of the DesignBuilder software, based on the EnergyPlus computational engine. The models allowed the authors to estimate the degree and nature of the influence of the examined factors on the building's energy demand. As a result of the optimization of parameters according to the energy criterion, the contribution of each of the three groups of parameters to energy saving was determined. Deterministic numerical optimization using MATLAB was applied. It turned out that the factors from the first group played the most important role in energy savings (40.0%), and the factors from the third group contributed slightly less (25.7%). The contribution of the characteristics from the second group was 4.2% of the total value of energy saving. This information can be useful to scientists, as well as engineers and policymakers, in making correct decisions when designing new residential buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The anti-seismic problem of rural residential buildings is the weak link of seismic retrofitting in China. Recently, geotechnical seismic isolation (GSI) technology based on rubber–sand mixtures (GSI–RSM) using rubber–sand mixtures (RSM) between the structural foundation and the foundation soil has been proven to have the possibility of potential applications in rural residential buildings. Many theoretical studies exist on the effectiveness of seismic isolation of the GSI–RSM system, but few studies on either the seismic response test of model buildings placed on the RSM layer or the large-scale shaking table test exist. Therefore, this study considers a large shaking table test performed on a 1/4 single-story masonry structure model with and without a GSI–RSM system by selecting a standard input ground motion and varying input acceleration amplitudes. The test results show that the GSI–RSM system can reduce the seismic response of superstructures. The isolation effect of the GSI–RSM system is low in small earthquakes and increases with increasing earthquake magnitude. Overall, the RSM layer can filter part of the high-frequency components of the earthquake to transmit to the superstructure and consume more seismic energy by generating friction slip in the interaction with the structural foundation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the chronic shortage of energy-related analytical data and disintegration of building energy regulations, numerous existing residential buildings in Petra (Jordan) and many cities worldwide suffer from poor building energy design. This paper aims at investigating the potential of applying energy-saving standards in order to improve the whole-building energy consumption of low-rise residential buildings in mild and dry climate zones. Representative buildings were selected based on a field survey. Proposed strategies focused on applicable solutions such as envelope components, and energy-related systems were set. The models were created using Autodesk Revit, and then the results were generated by the EnergyPlus engine. The findings showed that the application of building energy standards greatly impacts the overall energy end-use, where up to 30% reduction can be achieved by applying the Jordanian code, and up to 45% by applying the American standard. This work provides guidance for the residential building industry and policymakers in Jordan and many other countries with similar building characteristics and climate zones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The foundation of energy-efficient architectural design is modeling heating and cooling loads (HLs and CLs), which defines the heating and cooling apparatus constraints necessary to maintain a suitable interior air environment. It is possible that analytical models for energy-efficient buildings might offer an accurate evaluation of the influence that various building designs would have. The implementation of these instruments, however, might be a process that requires a significant amount of manual labor, a significant amount of time, and is reliant on user experiences. In light of this, the authors of this paper present two unique methods for estimating the CL of residential structures in the form of complex mathematical concepts. These methodologies include an evolutionary web algorithm (EWA), biogeography-based optimization (BBO), and a hybridization of an adaptive neuro-fuzzy interface system (ANFIS), namely BBO-ANFIS and EWA-ANFIS. The findings initiated from each of the suggested models are evaluated with the help of various performance metrics. Moreover, it is possible to determine which model is the most effective by comparing their coefficient of determination ( R 2   ) and its root mean square error (RMSE) to each other. In mapping non-linear connections between input and output variables, the observed findings showed that the models used have a great capability. In addition, the results showed that BBO-ANFIS was the superior forecasting model out of the two provided models, with the lowest value of RMSE and the greatest value of R 2   (RMSE = 0.10731 and 0.11282 and R 2   = 0.97776 and 0.97552 for training and testing phases, respectively). The EWA-ANFIS also demonstrated RMSE and R 2   values of 0.18682 and 0.17681 and 0.93096 and 0.93874 for the training and testing phases, respectively. Finally, this study has proven that ANN is a powerful tool and will be useful for predicting the CL in residential buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The depletion of fossil energy reserves has intensified the interest in renewable energy sources, such as solar energy. Solar water heating represents an environmentally clean technology, with an abundant, permanent, renewable energy source that does not pollute or harm the ecosystem. In this context, the objective of the work was to revisit the theme of residential solar heating in relation to the use of flat-plate solar collectors. This study combined bibliometrics techniques and a systematic literature review. The results indicated that by considering the period from 1993 to 2020, we could find several publications revealing that the interest in this subject still remains high and current. Themes related to water heating and ambient cooling showed consistency in the publications, while studies focused on integrating solar thermal energy with other chemical processes, such as distillation or desalination, indicated that significant research is required in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents proposals for using the direct-contact gravel, ground, air heat exchanger in single-family residential buildings with a passive house standard, according to the Passive House Institute (PHI). The methodology of their application consists of using heat and cold from the ground at an insignificant depth (about 1.5–4.0 m below the ground level for the central European climate) through an aggregate that is buried in the ground. This solution of simple installations is used for preheating and cooling fresh air drawn into the building through a mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery. In more complex applications it can be integrated with the source of heat and cold in passive buildings to create complete heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. In both cases, the air flowing through the exchanger is cooled and dried in summer, heated and humidified in winter, and filtered from pollen and bacteria all year. Direct contact of the deposit with the surrounding native soil facilitates rapid regeneration of the bed temperature. This article presents several proposals for integration with systems ensuring climatic comfort in a passive building, as exemplary applications. The paper presents preliminary estimates of energy (savings of up to 70% of electrical energy consumed), economic (SPBT = 3.65 years), and environmental (69.5% reduction in CO2 emissions) benefits related to implementing this solution in various configurations of technological systems for buildings in Poland. The calculations were carried out for the city of Poznań, taking into account the hourly intervals and using the author's code written in MS Excel. The analysis of the operation of the direct-contact gravel, ground, air heat exchanger (GGAHE) system is based on a theoretical heat and mass exchange model. The integrated solutions of technical systems presented in this article provide an interesting alternative to traditional heating, cooling, and ventilation systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Residential buildings are an important sector in the urban environment as they provide essential dwelling space, but they are also responsible for a significant share of final energy consumption. In addition, residential buildings that were built with outdated standards usually face difficulty meeting current energy performance standards. The situation is especially common in Europe, as 35% of buildings were built over fifty years ago. Building retrofitting techniques provide a choice to improve building energy efficiency while maintaining the usable main structures, as opposed to demolition. The retrofit assessment requires the building stock information, including energy demand and material compositions. Therefore, understanding the building stock at scale becomes a critical demand. A significant piece of information is the building geometry, which is essential in building energy modelling and stock analysis. In this investigation, an approach has been developed to automatically measure building dimensions from remote sensing data. The approach is built on a combination of unsupervised machine learning algorithms, including K-means++, DBSCAN and RANSAC. This work is also the first attempt at using a vehicle-mounted data-capturing system to collect data as the input to characterise building geometry. The developed approach is tested on an automatically built and labelled point cloud model dataset of residential buildings and shows capability in acquiring comprehensive geometry information while keeping a high level of accuracy when processing an intact model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The architectural and construction professions are in a state of major transition. While wooden structures are known to have superior energy saving properties as compared with RC structures, this study establishes that hybrid refurbished structures in which RC beams and columns are retained, while floors and walls are replaced by new timber laminates, results in lighter, cheaper buildings, with energy performance superior to the replaced fully RC structures, yet only marginally less efficient than full wooden buildings. The fifth paper, "Automatically creating HVAC control strategies based on building information modeling (BIM)", Ref. [[6]] presents a method for optimizing building heating using BIM data. The imperative that the industry must embrace is "sustainability", and with that imperative is the requirement to develop applications that make buildings energy-efficient, eco-friendly, resilient, inclusive, and overall "greener". [Extracted from the article]

The research is aimed at comparing residential building windows' thermal performance with and without thermal shutters, and at examining thermal shutters' performance upon being insulated with various types of insulation, glares, outside temperatures, and solar radiation. As an example, one case study based out of the UAE is chosen, covering the status of the housing typology and traits of building energy consumption. The study uses the primary tool of computer simulation software "DesignBuilder" to examine the impact of window shutters design on energy consumption and environmental impact. It was found that the usage of conventional insulating materials within the shutters is sufficient for the house to attain a reduction in heat gain of up to 50%. Furthermore, the application of the rolling shutters with analyzed control strategies recorded a potential reduction in equivalent CO2 emissions level, up to 15%, which would decrease the environmental burden on a national level. The simulations have shown high insulating materials did not differ much in the reduction in energy when running a simulation for a whole unit of housing rather than experimenting a window unit separably as reviewed in the literature. The findings can be applicable to other regions with similar climatic conditions and cultural constraints, such as those of the Middle East and the GCC countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes an approach for comparing material intensity values for residential buildings with different construction types. Based on the working drawings of the different construction types (wood and mineral), material intensities are calculated at the building level. Material intensities describe the materials used in a building in mass (tonnes (t)) in relation to the square meters (m2) of gross floor area (GFA) or the cubic meters (m3) of gross volume (GV). The method for determining material intensities at the building level is demonstrated. The results show that material intensities range from 0.61 t/m2 GFA to 1.95 t/m2 GFA for single-family residential buildings and from 1.36 t/m2 GFA to 1.54 t/m2 GFA for multi-storey residential buildings. The average material intensity for mineral buildings is twice as high as that for wood buildings, which means that there is a beneficial resource efficiency in building with wood instead of mineral materials. Therefore, benchmarks for a resource efficient building can be conducted based on these values. These values demonstrate a possibility to influence resource efficiency in buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shifting from heating using fossil fuel combustion to electrified heating, dominated by heat pumps, is central to many countries' decarbonisation strategy. The consequent increase in electricity demand, combined with that from electric vehicles, and the shift from non-renewable to renewable generation requires increased demand flexibility to support system operation. Demand side response through interrupting heating during peak demands has been widely proposed and simulation modelling has been used to determine the technical potential. This paper proposes an empirical approach to quantifying a building's potential to operate flexibly, presenting a metric based on measured temperature drop in a dwelling under standard conditions after heating is switched off, using smart meter and internal temperature data. A result was derived for 96% of 193 homes within a test dataset, mean temperature drop of 1.5 °C in 3 h at 15 °C inside-outside temperature differential. An empirical flexibility metric may support decision making and decarbonisation. For households it may support the transition to heat pumps, enabling time of use costs and tariffs to be better understood and system to be specified by installers. Electricity system stakeholders, such as aggregators and DNOs may use it to identify the potential for demand response, managing local networks, infrastructure and aggregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the U.S., approximately 47% of the total electricity use comes from residential buildings. Most of the residential buildings use HVAC system to ventilate, cool, or heat the indoor environmental spaces mechanically, rather than using natural outdoor air in transition seasons, even though the outdoor environmental conditions are favorable for indoor thermal comfort. In this case, an HVAC system using mixed-mode ventilation with an appropriate ratio of using indoor air and outdoor air could decrease the energy use in residential buildings. This research uses high-granular HVAC electricity use data with indoor thermostat data and outdoor weather data from residential buildings in Austin, Texas, to evaluate the benefits of energy and economics when using HVAC mixed-mode ventilation in spring and fall transition seasons. The results demonstrate that the household owners could save approximately 150.79 kWh of total HVAC energy use and 24.41% of HVAC cost in spring transition months (April/May), and similarly, 143.86 kWh of energy use and 27.2% cost savings in fall transition months (October/November). The results could support further study to use automatically operated windows for natural ventilation to reduce energy use in residential buildings toward sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural ventilation dominates in Polish residential buildings. It is a simple and low-cost system but its performance is affected by varying environmental conditions. Hence, setting up constant ventilation airflow results in errors when calculating heating and cooling energy. In this paper, an attempt to integrate the buoyancy effect in natural ventilation of a residential building at hourly resolution with the hourly simulation method of EN ISO 13790 to obtain energy use for space heating and cooling is presented. The ping-pong coupling algorithm was proposed and applied. Hourly variation of ventilation airflow rate was from −26.8 m3/h (flow from outdoor to the interior of the building) to 87.2 m3/h with 55 m3/h on average. The lack of a cooling system resulted in overheating during summer and indicated the necessity of its application or use of other techniques to reduce solar gains. Application of the cooling system resulted in an hourly ventilation rate from −38.0 m3/h to 87.2 m3/h. Detailed simulation in EnergyPlus and statistical analysis proved the applicability of the proposed method in stack-induced ventilation assessment. The coefficient of determination R2 = 0.936, mean squared error MAE = 5.72 m3/h and root mean square error RMSE = 7.86 m3/h. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Windows are among building components that have the strongest effect on thermal load. They play a significant role in heat loss in buildings because they usually have a largely higher thermal conductance than other components of the building envelope. Although many studies have highlighted the relevance of heat transfer through frames and aimed to improve their thermal performance, poorly insulated aluminum frames (thermal conductivity of aluminum is 160 W/m·K, while that of polyvinyl chloride [PVC] is 0.17 W/m·K) are still in use in Japan. Therefore, the U-values of different window frames were calculated, and annual thermal loads were calculated according to the window configurations, including the frame, glazing, and cavity. We focused on standard residential buildings in Japan with a total floor area of 120.6 m2 (two-story building), and the number of newly built houses and the application rate of window configurations in 2019 were surveyed to estimate the CO2 emissions by regions. CO2 emissions were reduced by approximately 3.98–6.58% with the application of PVC frames. Furthermore, CO2 emissions were converted into the amount of CO2 gas absorbed by cedar trees, which cover nearly 18% of the total land area of Japan. In conclusion, analogous to the amount of CO2 gas absorbed by cedar trees, the absorption effect was equivalent to 327,743–564,416 cedar trees. Changing the window frame material can facilitate a significant energy-saving effect as a considerable amount of energy is saved, especially at a city scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oversimplifying occupant behaviour using static and standard schedules has been identified as a limitation of building energy simulation tools. This paper describes the use of hierarchical cluster analysis to establish the most typical indoor temperature profiles of Albanian dwellings based on monitored indoor temperatures in winter and summer, along with building and occupant surveys undertaken in 49 randomly selected dwellings in Tirana. Three statistically different profiles were developed for each summer and winter, indicating that homes are used in different ways, as well as revealing possible comfort requirements. Furthermore, statistical analysis was undertaken to determine the strength of the association between the clusters and contextual factors related to the building, household, and occupancy. A statistically significant association was found between the presence of children and the clusters in winter, suggesting that families with dependents use more energy. Building-related factors including building type, building age, and wall insulation were found to be statistically significantly associated with clusters in summer. These profiles could provide more accurate outcomes of energy consumption of Albanian homes and energy savings from retrofits. They could also facilitate the development of low-energy strategies and policies for specific households. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the challenges of increasing the energy efficiency investments in European Union (EU) residential buildings in the context of achieving climate neutrality by 2050. The paper presents the results of the PRIMES buildings model in key energy policy applications to support cost-effective and fair policy making in buildings across Europe. The model covers, in detail, the building sector for all the EU Member States (MS), segmenting the buildings into many categories. The approach proposed includes non-market barriers in conventional microeconomic modelling, which combined with idiosyncratic preferences can capture poor energy efficiency choices and still represent rational behaviours. The model includes a detailed portrayal of policies specific to the sector, comprising economic and regulatory policies as well as institutional measures. The results of the model show that the removal of non-market barriers is of great importance in reducing energy consumption and increasing both the pace and the depth of renovation investment. However, the institutional measures alone are not enough to induce energy efficiency improvement to the scale required to achieve the climate neutrality objectives. Economic (i.e., subsidies) or regulatory measures (i.e., energy performance standards) are also required to decrease emissions and energy consumption in buildings and the paper compares different configurations thereof. The optimum policy mix obviously derives from a compromise among various aims including the cost-effectiveness of the policy budget and the distributional impacts across building and consumer types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a review of the adoption status of energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies is presented, specific to US residential buildings. Various technologies are reviewed and categorized as either their relative "higher adoption" or "lower adoption" rates within the US housing stock. More importantly, the review analysis investigates the main factors associated with their high or low adoption rates. Specifically, the paper provides a background of the historical progression of energy efficiency programs as well as sustainability certifications and standards for buildings. The review then analyzes specific building energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies applied to US residential buildings and their adoption rates. The review analysis indicates that building technologies are more frequently adopted for multiple reasons including requirements by codes and standards, incentives through green certifications, low implementation costs, and acceptance and popularity by the public. In contrast, technologies with low adoption rates have higher payback periods, are not required or highly incentivized through codes and certifications, have limited promotion about their benefits, or are not compatible with existing systems. By determining the reasons for the high and low adoption rates, mitigation options can be identified to increase the application of sustainable energy technologies in designing and retrofitting buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the European Union's Energy Performance of Buildings Directive, the energy efficiency goal for buildings is set in terms of primary energy use. In the proposal from the National Board of Housing, Building, and Planning, for nearly zero energy buildings in Sweden, the use of primary energy is expressed as a primary energy number calculated with given primary energy factors. In this article, a multi-dwelling building is simulated and the difference in the primary energy number is investigated when the building uses heat from district heating systems or from heat pumps, alone or combined with solar thermal or solar photovoltaic systems. It is also investigated how the global CO2 emissions are influenced by the different energy system combinations and with different fuels used. It is concluded that the calculated primary energy number is lower for heat pump systems, but the global CO2 emissions are lowest when district heating uses mostly biofuels and is combined with solar PV systems. The difference is up to 140 tonnes/year. If the aim with the Swedish building code is to decrease the global CO2 emissions then the ratio between the primary energy factors for electricity and heat should be larger than three and considerably higher than today. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy consumption rose about 28% over the 2001 to 2011 period in the Spanish residential sector. In this environment, domestic hot water (DHW) represents the second highest energy demand. There are several methodologies to estimate DHW consumption, but each methodology uses different inputs and some of them are based on obsolete data. DHW energy consumption estimation is a key tool to plan modifications that could enhance this consumption and we decided to update the methodologies. We studied DHW consumption with data from 10 apartments in the same building during 18 months. As a result of the study, we updated one chosen methodology, adapting it to the current situation. One of the challenges to improve efficiency of DHW use is that most of people are not aware of how it is consumed in their homes. To help this information to reach consumers, we developed a website to allow users to estimate the final electrical energy needed for DHW. The site uses three estimation methodologies and chooses the best fit based on information given by the users. Finally, the application provides users with recommendations and tips to reduce their DHW consumption while still maintaining the desired comfort level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Occupant behaviour plays a significant role in shaping the dynamics of energy consumption in buildings, but the complex nature of occupant behaviour has hindered a deeper understanding of its influence. A meta-analysis was conducted on 65 published studies that used data-driven quantitative assessments to assess energy-related occupant behaviour using the Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (KDD) framework. Hierarchical clustering was utilised to categorise different modelling techniques based on the intended outcomes of the model and the types of parameters used in various models. This study will assist researchers in selecting the most appropriate parameters and methods under various data constraints and research questions. The research revealed two distinct model categories being used to study occupant behaviour-driven energy consumption, namely (i) occupancy status models and (ii) energy-related behaviour models. Multiple studies have identified limitations on data collection and privacy concerns as constraints of modelling occupant behaviour in residential buildings. The "regression model" and its variants were found to be the preferred model types for research that models "energy-related behaviour", and "classification models" were found to be preferable for modelling "occupancy" status. There were only limited instances of data-driven studies that modelled occupant behaviour in low-income households, and there is a need to generate region-specific models to accurately model energy-related behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the architectural implications, in terms of size and space requirements, of battery technologies in a built environment using renewable energy and energy storage technologies. These aspects will be of particular interest as the world transitions to a low carbon future. This paper is the first to focus on the physical size of storage systems required to provide particular storage characteristics. The research used a quantitative case study methodology and focused on the investigation of nine battery technologies based on potential technology and energy consumption scenarios in 2030. Different residential building scales at a local distribution scale are explored considering sub-daily autonomy periods. Four case studies in a 2030 scenario are presented. For each case study, the nominal capacity, spatial requirements and costs are assessed for each technology. A schematic characterisation of the technologies was derived considering their suitability across these aspects as well as their applicability at different scales. The study showed that the architectural implications of the spatial and structural requirements are significant in some cases and negligible in others, with Li-ion and Zn-air technologies having minimal space requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the energy benefits of switchable insulation systems (SIS) are assessed when applied as shades for windows as well as dynamic insulation for exterior walls of residential buildings located in European countries including Belgium and Spain. A series of analyses is performed for detached houses and apartments representing common Belgian residential buildings to determine the energy performance of SIS when deployed to windows and exterior walls and operated using simplified rule-based controls. The analysis results indicate that SIS-integrated windows can achieve significant energy savings for both dwelling types in Belgium, including the elimination of any mechanical cooling and a reduction of up to 44% of heating energy end-use. Moreover, the results show that SIS can offer even more energy efficiency and thermal comfort benefits when deployed to both windows and exterior walls for residential buildings. These energy efficiency benefits are higher, especially for reducing heating needs, for the milder climates of Belgium and Spain. However, it should be noted that the energy performance of SIS could be affected substantially by windows' orientation and occupants' behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]