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I/O is often a performance bottleneck in global ocean circulation models with fine spatial resolution. In this paper, we present an asynchronous parallel I/O framework and demonstrate its efficacy in the Mass Conservation Ocean Model (MaCOM) as a case study. By largely reducing I/O operations in computing processes and overlapping output in I/O processes with computation in computing processes, this framework significantly improves the performance of the MaCOM. Through both reordering output data for maintaining data continuity and combining file access for reducing file operations, the I/O optimizing algorithms are provided to improve output bandwidth. In the case study of the MaCOM, the cost of output in I/O processes can be overlapped by up to 99% with computation in computing processes as decreasing output frequency. The 1D data output bandwidth with these I/O optimizing algorithms is 3.1 times faster than before optimization at 16 I/O worker processes. Compared to the synchronous parallel I/O framework, the overall performance of MaCOM is improved by 38.8% at 1024 computing processes for a 7-day global ocean forecast with 1 output every 2 h through the asynchronous parallel I/O framework presented in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a novel ensemble adjustment Kalman filter (EAKF) that integrates a machine-learning approach. The conventional EAKF adopts linear and Gaussian assumptions, making it difficult to handle cross-component updates in strongly coupled data assimilation (SCDA). The new approach employs nonlinear variable relationships established by a deep neural network (DNN) during the analysis stage of the EAKF, which nonlinearly projects observation increments into the state variable space. It can diminish errors in estimating cross-component error covariance arising from insufficient ensemble members, therefore improving the SCDA analysis. A conceptual coupled model is employed in this paper to conduct twin experiments, validating the DNN–EAKF's capability to outperform conventional EAKF in SCDA. The results reveal that the DNN–EAKF can make SCDA superior to WCDA with a limited ensemble size. The root-mean-squared errors are reduced up to 70% while the anomaly correlation coefficients are increased up to 20% when the atmospheric observations are used to update the ocean variables directly. The other model components can also be improved through SCDA. This approach is anticipated to offer insights for future methodological integrations of machine learning and data assimilation and provide methods for SCDA applications in coupled general circulation models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a growing need for proactive planning for natural hazards in a changing climate. Computational modeling of climate hazards provides an opportunity to inform planning, particularly in areas approaching ecosystem state changes, such as Interior Alaska, where future hazards are expected to differ significantly from historical events in frequency and severity. This paper considers improved modeling approaches from a physical process perspective and contextualizes the results within the complexities and limitations of hazard planning efforts and management concerns. Therefore, the aim is not only to improve the understanding of potential climate impacts on streamflow within this region but also to further explore the steps needed to evaluate local-scale hazards from global drivers and the potential challenges that may be present. This study used dynamically downscaled climate forcing data from ERA-Interim reanalysis datasets and projected climate scenarios from two General Circulation Models under a single Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP 8.5) to simulate an observational gage-calibrated WRF-Hydro model to assess shifts in streamflow and flooding potential in three Interior Alaska rivers over a historical period (2008–2017) and two future periods (2038–2047 and 2068–2077). Outputs were assessed for seasonality, streamflow, extreme events, and the comparison between existing flood control infrastructure in the region. The results indicate that streamflow in this region is likely to experience increases in seasonal length and baseflow, while the potential for extreme events and variable short-term streamflow behavior is likely to see greater uncertainty, based on the divergence between the models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1960s was an exciting era for atmospheric predictability research: a finite predictability of the atmosphere was uncovered using Lorenz's models and the well-acknowledged predictability limit of two weeks was estimated using a general circulation model (GCM). Here, we delve into details regarding how a correlation between the two-week predictability limit and a doubling time of five days was established, recognize Lorenz's pioneering work, and suggest non-impossibility for predictability beyond two weeks. We reevaluate the outcomes of three different approaches—dynamical, empirical, and dynamical-empirical—presented in Lorenz's and Charney et al.'s papers from the 1960s. Using the intrinsic characteristics of the irregular solutions found in Lorenz's studies and the dynamical approach, a doubling time of five days was estimated using the Mintz–Arakawa model and extrapolated to propose a predictability limit of approximately two weeks. This limit is now termed "Predictability Limit Hypothesis", drawing a parallel to Moore's Law, to recognize the combined direct and indirect influences of Lorenz, Mintz, and Arakawa under Charney's leadership. The concept serves as a bridge between the hypothetical predictability limit and practical model capabilities, suggesting that long-range simulations are not entirely constrained by the two-week predictability hypothesis. These clarifications provide further support to the exploration of extended-range predictions using both partial differential equation (PDE)-physics-based and Artificial Intelligence (AI)—powered approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The performance of general circulation models (GCMs) in simulating horizontal winds is important because the distribution and variation in horizontal winds are central to investigating atmospheric dynamic characteristics and processes. Also, horizontal wind data can be used to extract some of the required information on gravity waves, tides, and planetary waves. In this context, the present paper evaluates the capability of the Institute of Atmospheric Physics atmospheric general circulation model high-top version (IAP-HAGCM) in simulating the horizontal winds and tides of the troposphere and lower stratosphere by presenting a climatological and statistical comparison against observations of the powerful Beijing mesosphere–stratosphere–troposphere (MST) radar (39.78°N, 116.95°E) during 2012–2014. The results illustrated that the IAP-HAGCM can successfully reproduce the time–altitude distribution of the monthly mean zonal wind and diurnal tide amplitude, albeit with some underestimation. The mean correlation coefficients and root-mean-square error for the zonal (meridional) winds were 0.94 (0.73) and 6.60 m s−1 (2.90 m s–1), respectively. Additionally, the IAP-HAGCM can capture the temporal variation in both the zonal and meridional winds. It is worth noting that, compared with the seven coupled model intercomparison project phase 6 (CMIP6) models, the IAP-HAGCM performs better in meridional wind simulations below 15 km. However, there are discrepancies in altitudinal ranges with large wind velocities, such as the westerly jet, in the transition region of the troposphere and stratosphere, and in February, April, July, and September. It is suggested that model users should take advantage of the model's simulation ability by combining this information regarding when and where it is optimal with their own research purposes. Moreover, the evaluation results in this paper can also serve as a reference for guiding improvements of the IAP-HAGCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Xinjiang, located in the arid region of the northwest, is one of the areas most sensitive to global changes. The Kaidu River Basin, situated in the heart of Xinjiang, is one of the sources of China's largest inland river—the Tarim River. The Kaidu River not only bears the responsibility for supplying water for industrial use and agricultural production and people's daily life in the basin, but also plays a crucial role in ecological water supply to the Tarim River. Studying and analyzing the characteristics and trends of meteorological condition in the future under climate change can provide important references and a basis for a deeper understanding of changes in the hydrological process and water resources in the basin. Therefore, this paper selects seven precipitation bias correction methods and four temperature bias correction methods to adjust the precipitation and temperature output data of eight general circulation models of the Sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) within the Kaidu River Basin. The applicability of different bias correction methods in the study area is evaluated, and based on the corrected future meteorological data and calculated extreme meteorological index, the trends of meteorological data (precipitation, temperature) in the future period (2025–2050) under four SSP scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP5-8.5) in the Kaidu River Basin are analyzed. The results show that: (1) Different types of bias correction methods have different correction focus and effects; their reflections on evaluation indicators are also different. (2) In the future period (2025–2050), the annual precipitation and average temperature in the Kaidu River Basin are higher than those in the historical period (1975–2014). The average annual temperature shows an upward trend in the future, but the annual precipitation shows a downward trend in the future except for the SSP2-4.5 scenario. (3) Compared with the historical period, the extreme precipitation in the future period under the SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5 scenarios is higher than that in the historical period, and the number of rainless days decreases. In the future, under the SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5 scenarios, the probability of meteorological drought events occurring due to high temperatures in the basin may further increase, while under the SSP2-4.5 scenario, the situation of high temperatures and heavy rain in the basin may continue to increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is great uncertainty about the future effects of climate change on the global economic, social, environmental, and water sectors. This paper focuses on watershed vulnerabilities to climate change by coupling a distributed hydrological model with artificial neural networks and spatially distributed indicators for the use of a predictive model of such vulnerability. The analyses are complemented by a Monte Carlo evaluation of the uncertainty associated with the projections of the global circulation models, including how such uncertainty impacts the vulnerability forecast. To test the proposal, the paper uses current and future vulnerabilities of the Turbio River watershed, located in the semi-arid zone of Guanajuato (Mexico). The results show that nearly 50% of the watershed currently has medium and high vulnerabilities, and only the natural areas in the watershed show low vulnerabilities. In the future, an increase from medium to high vulnerability is expected to occur in urban and agricultural areas of the basin, with an associated uncertainty of ±15 mm in the projected precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippines is highly vulnerable to multiple climate-related hazards due to its geographical location and weak adaptation measures. Floods are the most catastrophic hazards that impact lives, livelihoods, and, consequently, the economy at large. Understanding the ability of the general circulation models to simulate the observed rainfall using the latest state-of-the-art model is essential for reliable forecasting. Based on this background, this paper objectively aims at assessing and ranking the capabilities of the recent Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) models in simulating the observed rainfall over the Philippines. The Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) v2.3 was used as a proxy to gauge the performance of 11 CMIP6 models in simulating the annual and rainy-season rainfall during 1980–2014. Several statistical metrics (mean, standard deviation, normalized root means square error, percentage bias, Pearson correlation coefficient, Mann–Kendall test, Theil–Sen slope estimator, and skill score) and geospatial measures were assessed. The results show that that CMIP6 historical simulations exhibit satisfactory effectiveness in simulating the annual cycle, though some models display wet/dry biases. The CMIP6 models generally underestimate rainfall on the land but overestimate it over the ocean. The trend analysis shows that rainfall over the country is insignificantly increasing both annually and during the rainy seasons. Notably, most of the models could correctly simulate the trend sign but over/underestimate the magnitude. The CMIP6 historical rainfall simulating models significantly agree on simulating the mean annual cycle but diverge in temporal ability simulation. The performance of the models remarkably differs from one metric to another and among different time scales. Nevertheless, the models may be ranked from the best to the least best at simulating the Philippines' rainfall in the order GFDL, NOR, ACCESS, ENS, MRI, CMCC, NESM, FIO, MIROC, CESM, TAI, and CAN. The findings of this study form a good basis for the selection of models to be used in robust future climate projection and impact studies regarding the Philippines. The climate model developers may use the documented shortcoming of these models and improve their physical parametrization for better performance in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate is closely related to human life, food security and ecosystems. Forecasting future climate provides important information for agricultural production, water resources management and so on. In this paper, historical climate data from 1962–2001 was used at three sites in Tianjin Baodi, Tianjin and Tanggu districts as baseline and the model parameters were calibrated by the Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator (LARS-WG). 2m-temperatures in 2011–2020 were verified under two scenarios, representative concentration pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP8.5 in different atmospheric circulation models with optimal minimum 2m-temperatures at the three sites. From 2031–2050, Tianjin will be using more moderate minimum 2m-temperatures in future simulations. Support vector machines (SVM) were used to optimize the simulated data to obtain more accurate future maximum and minimum 2m-temperatures for the three sites. The results showed that the determinant coefficient of LARS-WG simulation was 0.8 and SVM optimized determinant coefficient was 0.9 which greatly improved the prediction accuracy. The minimum and maximum future 2m-temperatures optimized under European Community Earth System Model (EC-EARTH) were relatively low and the same future 2m-temperatures optimized under Hadley Centre Global Environment Model Earth System (Had-GEM2-ES4) were high especially in the RCP8.5 scenario which simulated 2051–2070 climate. The SVM optimization showed that the maximum and minimum 2m-temperatures were in general agreement with the original simulation values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Damage from climate change is widespread throughout the world. This change has brought about calamities, the most prevalent of which is the emergence of numerous droughts which are increasingly threatening human lives. In this paper, we studied the spatial and temporal variations of drought under the effect of climate change in the Huaibei Plain, which is a very important agricultural zone in China. Drought has attracted increasing attention in research due to its heavy impact on agriculture, the environment, livelihood, and food security. The SPEI (Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index) has been used in this study to express and identify drought events in the Huaibei Plain due to climate change. A general circulation model (GCM), HadGEM2-AO, which was the most appropriate for the study area's precipitation simulation, and three Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP), RCP 2.6, RCP 4.5, and RCP 8.5, were used to analyze and compare the drought effect for the baseline (1985–2017) and the future climate scenarios (2025–2090). At 3 and 6 months, the SPEI successfully detects agricultural drought in temporal and spatial variation. However, according to the analysis, more severe agricultural drought events are foreseen in the future than in the baseline because of climate change. SPEI performed better than SPI in detecting drought in the baseline and simulated data due to increased evapotranspiration. Between the SPEI-3 and SPEI-6, the Pearson coefficient correlation reveals a positive association. The Mann-Kendall test was used to cover the two studied periods in order to establish the drought trend. Both decreasing and increasing trends, in different timescales, were detected by Sen's Slope in the baseline and future periods with all RCPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Finally, with respect to the inclusion of a contribution regarding the river hydrological system, Campuzano et al. [[11]] aim to explore the potential impacts on the ocean system that can be obtained by using sophisticated land boundary conditions based on the capacities of state-of-the-art hydrologic models combined with observation networks. Improving Operational Ocean Models for the Spanish Port Authorities: Assessment of the SAMOA Coastal Forecasting Service Upgrades. The paper assesses the potential impacts that newly available river discharge datasets can have on regional ocean model solutions delivered by the Copernicus Marine IBI-MFC regional service when used as part of the freshwater land forcing. [Extracted from the article]

Synoptic eddies (with a period of two to eight days) are active in the South China Sea-Philippine Sea (SCS-PS) and control weather variations. In addition, the intensity and frequency of synoptic eddies may change along with variations in sea surface temperatures (SST). This paper presented the influence of SST in the northwest Indian Ocean on synoptic eddies in the lower troposphere over the SCS-PS in June. Our statistical analysis showed a significant negative correlation between the SST in the northwest Indian Ocean and the synoptic scale eddy kinetic energy (EKE) in the SCS-PS. By analyzing the EKE budget of synoptic eddies, we found that the variation in the synoptic scale EKE over the SCS-PS is mainly due to the change in the monthly zonal wind gradient, which affects the barotropic energy conversion between the monthly mean flow and the synoptic eddies. Additionally, the northwest Indian Ocean SST modulates the monthly flow over the SCS-PS by alternating the strength of the Walker circulation in the west Pacific and Indian Ocean. Finally, the influence of SST in the northwest Indian Ocean on EKE in the SCS-PS was reproduced using the simplified atmospheric general circulation model, SPEEDY. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The web-based tool ARClim provides an atlas of climate change-related risk assessments spanning over 50 environmental and productive sectors in Chile. This paper illustrates the implementation of ARClim on two coastal sectors, operational downtime in fishing coves and flooding in coastal settlements, aiming to provide a tool to visualize comparative estimates of risk, which may enable decision makers and stakeholders to prioritize adaptation measures. The risk is calculated as a function of the hazard, exposure, and sensitivity. Exposure and sensitivity are characterized using present day information. To assess the hazard, wave climate for a historical period (1985–2004) and a projection (2026–2045) were modeled with six general circulation models (GCMs) for an RCP8.5 scenario. Similarly, sea-level rise was computed from 21 GCMs. Results show that the flooding hazard is mostly dependent on sea-level rise, with waves playing a minor role. However, the flooding risk is highly variable along the coast, due to differences in the exposure, which strongly depends on the population of each settlement. The analysis of increased operational downtime in fishing coves also shows risk, which is dependent of the size of each site. Lastly, limitations of the analysis and opportunities for improvement are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper described the implementation of a forecasting system of the coupled physical and biogeochemical state of the northern Adriatic Sea and discussed the preliminary results. The forecasting system is composed of two components: the NEMO general circulation model and the BFM biogeochemical model. The BFM component includes an explicit benthic pelagic coupling providing fluxes at the sediment–water interface and the dynamic of the major benthic state variables. The system is forced by atmospheric forcing from a limited-area model and by available land-based (river runoff and nutrient load) data. The preliminary results were validated against available remote and in situ observations. The validation effort indicated a good performance of the system in defining the basin scale characteristics, while locally the forecasting model performance seemed mostly impaired by the uncertainties in the definition of the land-based forcing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extreme temperature events are becoming more frequent due to global warming, and have critical effects on natural ecosystems, social and economic spheres, human production and life. Predicting changes in temperature extremes and trends under future climate scenarios helps to assess the impact of climate change accurately. Based on climate observations from 54 meteorological stations in the North China Plain and the projection data from seven general circulation models (GCMs) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6), this paper researches nine representative extreme temperature indices under four typical climate scenarios. The aim is to reveal the temporal and spatial variations in extreme temperature indices in the North China Plain during the past (1971–2010) and the future (2061–2100). The results show that: using a support vector machine (SVM) to perform regression analysis on the multi-GCMs prediction results, the root mean square error (RMSE) and relative standard deviation (RSD) of the multi-model ensemble simulations obtained by the SVM method are lower than those of the arithmetic mean method and can better match the trend of the historical extreme temperature index; the extreme high temperature index is predicted to show a significant upward trend in the future, while the extreme low temperature index will decrease significantly; and there are significant spatial differences in the extreme temperature index in both historical and future periods, with the extreme temperature index under the high radiation forcing scenario (SSP585) showing the most considerable variation and the most significant spatial differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper looks at regional water security in eastern China in the context of global climate change. The response of runoff to climate change in the Qinhuai River Basin, a typical river in eastern China, was quantitatively investigated by using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model and the ensemble projection of multiple general circulation models (GCMs) under three different shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) emission scenarios. The results show that the calibrated SWAT model is applicable to the Qinhuai River Basin and can accurately characterize the runoff process at daily and monthly scales with the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficients (NSE), correlation coefficients (R), and the Kling–Gupta efficiency (KGE) in calibration and validation periods being above 0.75 and relative errors (RE) are ±3.5%. In comparison to the baseline of 1980–2015, the mean annual precipitation in the future period (2025–2060) under the three emission scenarios of SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, and SSP5-8.5 will probably increase by 5.64%, 2.60%, and 6.68% respectively. Correspondingly, the multiple-year average of daily maximum and minimum air temperatures are projected to rise by 1.6–2.1 °C and 1.4–2.0 °C, respectively, in 2025–2060. As a result of climate change, the average annual runoff will increase by 16.24%, 8.84%, and 17.96%, respectively, in the period of 2025–2060 under the three SSPs scenarios. The increase in runoff in the future will provide sufficient water supply to support socioeconomic development. However, increases in both rainfall and runoff also imply an increased risk of flooding due to climate change. Therefore, the impact of climate change on flooding in the Qinhuai River Basin should be fully considered in the planning of flood control and the basin's development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to present the results of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model of solar radiation for moderate climatic zones. This analysis covered the area of northeastern Germany. Due to very unfavorable solar energy conditions in this region for at least 1/3 of the year, we decided to select the dates with the most representative conditions: passing warm fronts, cold fronts, and occluded fronts (two cases each). As the reference, two cloudless conditions during high-pressure situations were chosen. Two different shortwave radiation schemes—Rapid Radiative Transfer Model for general circulation model (RRTMG) and Dudhia—were tested. The obtained results were compared with in situ data measured at Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD) stations and then with European Medium-Range Weather Forecast reanalysis (ERA5) data. The results showed that for high-pressure situations, the mean correlations with measured data were above 90%. The Dudhia scheme, in addition to the expected good results for the high-pressure situation, showed better results than RRTMG for the warm and cold fronts as well. The forecast using the RRTMG scheme gave the best results for the occluded front, which were also better than those of the ERA5 model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphics processing unit (GPU)-based computing for climate system models is a longstanding research area of interest. The rapid radiative transfer model for general circulation models (RRTMG), a popular atmospheric radiative transfer model, can calculate atmospheric radiative fluxes and heating rates. However, the RRTMG has a high calculation time, so it is urgent to study its GPU-based efficient acceleration algorithm to enable large-scale and long-term climatic simulations. To improve the calculative efficiency of radiation transfer, this paper proposes a GPU-based acceleration algorithm for the RRTMG longwave radiation scheme (RRTMG_LW). The algorithm concept is accelerating the RRTMG_LW in the g-point dimension. After implementing the algorithm in CUDA Fortran, the G-RRTMG_LW was developed. The experimental results indicated that the algorithm was effective. In the case without I/O transfer, the G-RRTMG_LWon one K40 GPU obtained a speedup of 30.98x over the baseline performance on one single Intel Xeon E5-2680 CPU core. When compared to its counterpart running on 10 CPU cores of an Intel Xeon E5-2680 v2, the G-RRTMG_LW on one K20 GPU in the case without I/O transfer achieved a speedup of 2.35x. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climatic simulations rely heavily on high-performance computing. As one of the atmospheric radiative transfer models, the rapid radiative transfer model for general circulation models (RRTMG) is used to calculate the radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. Radiation physics is one of the most time-consuming physical processes, so the RRTMG presents large-scale and long-term simulation challenges to the development of efficient parallel algorithms that fit well into multicore clusters. This paper presents a method for improving the calculative efficiency of radiation physics, an RRTMG long-wave radiation scheme (RRTMG_LW) that is accelerated on a graphics processing unit (GPU). First, a GPU-based acceleration algorithm with one-dimensional domain decomposition is proposed. Then, a second acceleration algorithm with two-dimensional domain decomposition is presented. After the two algorithms were implemented in Compute Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) Fortran, a GPU version of the RRTMG_LW, namely G-RRTMG_LW, was developed. Results demonstrated that the proposed acceleration algorithms were effective and that the G-RRTMG_LW achieved a significant speedup. In the case without I/O transfer, the 2-D G-RRTMG_LW on one K40 GPU obtained a speed increase of 18.52× over the baseline performance on a single Intel Xeon E5-2680 CPU core. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Selecting appropriate climate change scenarios is crucial, as it influences the outcomes of climate change impact studies. Several storylines could be used to investigate the sensitivity of water resource schemes to weather variability and improve policymakers' adaptation strategies. This study proposes a comprehensive and generic methodology for assessing the future climate change impact on semi-arid and arid zones at the basin scale by comparing delta perturbation scenarios to the outcomes of seven collections of GCMs (general circulation models). The findings indicate that the two scenarios predicted nearly identical declines in average reservoir discharges over a monthly timescale. Consequently, their maximum values are almost similar. The projected decrease in the streamflow for the period 2080–2099 is approximately 48%—the same as the ratio from the delta perturbation scenario of Future16 (a 30% precipitation decrease and a 30% potential evapotranspiration increase). Furthermore, delta perturbation scenarios allow the impacts of model sensitivity to climate change to be clearly identified in relation to GCM scenarios. Delta perturbation scenarios allow for an extensive collection of possible climate changes at the regional scale. In addition, delta perturbation scenarios are simpler to create and use; therefore, they might complement GCM scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The European Mediterranean Basin (Euro-Med), a region particularly vulnerable to global warming, notably lacks research aimed at assessing and enhancing the widely used remote climate detection products known as General Circulation Models (GCMs). In this study, the proficiency of GCMs in replicating reanalyzed 1981–2010 temperature data sourced from the ERA5 Land was assessed. Initially, the least data-modifying interpolation method for achieving a resolution match of 0.1° was ascertained. Subsequently, a pixel-by-pixel evaluation was conducted, employing five goodness-of-fit metrics. From these metrics, we compiled a Comprehensive Rating Index (CRI). A Multi-Model Ensemble using Random Forest was constructed and projected across three emission scenarios (SSP1-RCP2.6, SSP2-RCP4.5, and SSP5-RCP8.5) and timeframes (2026–2050, 2051–2075, and 2076–2100). Empirical Bayesian Kriging, selected for its minimal data alteration, supersedes the commonly employed Bilinear Interpolation. The evaluation results underscore MPI-ESM1-2-HR, GFDL-ESM4, CNRM-CM6-1, MRI-ESM2-0, CNRM-ESM2-1, and IPSL-CM6A-LR as top-performing models. Noteworthy geospatial disparities in model performance were observed. The projection outcomes, notably divergent from IPCC forecasts, revealed a warming trend of 1 to over 2 °C less than anticipated for spring and winter over the medium–long term, juxtaposed with heightened warming in mountainous/elevated regions. These findings could substantially refine temperature projections for the Euro-Med, facilitating the implementation of policy strategies to mitigate the effects of global warming in vulnerable regions worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper assesses the effect of climate change on reliability of rainwater harvesting systems for Kabarole district, Uganda, as predicted by 6 best performing global circulation models (GCMs). A daily water balance model was used to simulate the performance of a rainwater harvesting system using historical daily rainfall data for 20 years. The GCMs used to generate daily rainfall projections for 2025–2055 and 2060–2090 periods included; ACCESS1-0, BCC-CSM-1-M, CNRM-CM5, HADGEM2-CC, HADGEM2-ES and MIROC5. Analysis was based on the Ugandan weather seasons which included March, April, May (MAM) and September, October, November (SON) rain seasons in addition to December, January, February (DJF) and June, July, August (JJA) dry seasons. While an increase in reliability is predicted for the SON season, the worst-case scenario is projected during the MAM season with a reliability reduction of over 40% for the 2055–2090 period. This corresponds to a 27% reduction in water security for the same period. The DJF season is also expected to experience reduced water security by 1–8% for 2025–2055 and 2060–2090 with a 0.5 m3 tank size. Therefore, some form of extra harvesting surface and increased tank size will be required to maintain 80% systems reliability considering climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study utilizes meteorological and leaf area index (LAI) data for three shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP1–2.6, SSP2–4.5, and SSP5–8.5) from four general circulation models (GCMs) of the sixth climate model intercomparison project (CMIP6) spanning from 2015 to 2099. Employing calibrated data and incorporating future land use data under three SSPs, the distributed hydrology soil vegetation model (DHSVM) is employed to simulate streamflow in the source region of the Yellow River (SRYR). The research aims to elucidate variations in streamflow across different future scenarios and to estimate extreme streamflow events and temporal distribution changes under future land use and cover change (LUCC) and climate change scenarios. The main conclusions are as follows: The grassland status in the SRYR will significantly improve from 2020 to 2099, with noticeable increases in temperature, precipitation, and longwave radiation, alongside a pronounced decrease in wind speed. The probability of flooding events increases in the future, although the magnitude of the increase diminishes over time. Both LUCC and climate change contribute to an increase in the multi-year average streamflow in the region, with respective increments of 48.8%, 24.5%, and 18.9% under SSP1–2.6, SSP2–4.5, and SSP5–8.5. Notably, the fluctuation in streamflow is most pronounced under SSP5–8.5. In SSP1–2.6, the increase in streamflow during the near future (2020–2059) exceeds that of the distant future (2059–2099). Seasonal variations in streamflow intensify across most scenarios, leading to a more uneven distribution of streamflow throughout the year and an extension of the flood season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Climate change and global warming have effects on every ecosystem and have caused huge losses in global biodiversity. This study identified that currently, the study area explored in this work provides a good quantity (around 35%) of suitable habitat for the Demoiselle Crane. The most influential factors determining Demoiselle Crane habitat suitability included the temperature seasonality, annual mean temperature, terrain ruggedness index, and human population density as significant contributors. Under changing climate scenarios, the study predicted a major loss of species current suitable habitat, with shrinkage and movement towards western–central areas along the Pakistan–Afghanistan boarder. The inevitable impacts of climate change have reverberated across ecosystems and caused substantial global biodiversity loss. Climate-induced habitat loss has contributed to range shifts at both species and community levels. Given the importance of identifying suitable habitats for at-risk species, it is imperative to assess potential current and future distributions, and to understand influential environmental factors. Like many species, the Demoiselle crane is not immune to climatic pressures. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Balochistan provinces in Pakistan are known wintering grounds for this species. Given that Pakistan is among the top five countries facing devastating effects of climate change, this study sought to conduct species distribution modeling under climate change using data collected during 4 years of field surveys. We developed a Maximum Entropy distribution model to predict the current and projected future distribution of the species across the study area. Future habitat projections for 2050 and 2070 were carried out using two representative concentration pathways (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) under three global circulation models, including HADGEM2-AO, BCC-CSM1-1, and CCSM4. The most influential factors shaping Demoiselle Crane habitat suitability included the temperature seasonality, annual mean temperature, terrain ruggedness index, and human population density, all of which contributed significantly to the suitability (81.3%). The model identified 35% of the study area as moderately suitable (134,068 km2) and highly suitable (27,911 km2) habitat for the species under current climatic conditions. Under changing climate scenarios, our model predicted a major loss of the species' current suitable habitat, with shrinkage and shift towards western–central areas along the Pakistan–Afghanistan boarder. The RCP 8.5, which is the extreme climate change scenario, portrays particularly severe consequences, with habitat losses reaching 65% in 2050 and 85% in 2070. This comprehensive study provides useful insights into the Demoiselle Crane habitat's current and future dynamics in Pakistan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The internal waves in the South China Sea are highly correlated with the tidal currents in the Luzon Strait, which makes it possible to establish an internal wave prediction model based on internal wave kinematics. However, the kinematic model requires the input of the exact location and time of the initial internal wave for which the generation mechanism of internal waves in the northern South China Sea must be well understood. By analyzing the internal wave field in the northern South China Sea (SCS) simulated using the MIT General Circulation Model (MITgcm) and observations from satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and mooring temperature–salinity–depth (TSD) chains, the source regions and propagation initiation times of internal waves are identified for three typical tidal phases, i.e., the diurnal-tide-dominated phase (DTP), transition tide phase (TTP), and semidiurnal-tide-dominated phase (STP). The generation procedures of Type A and Type B internal waves are discussed in detail with those data. The present study reveals that Type A and Type B waves are generated at the eastern and western ridges, respectively, and both commence their westward propagation at the peak of the eastward tidal flow. The dynamics of lee waves and the resonance effect with double ridges constitute the generation mechanisms of internal waves in the northern SCS. Combined with varying configurations of tidal conditions, topography, and stratification, the generation procedures of Type A and Type B waves in the DTP, TTP, and STP are elucidated with the generation mechanism in a unified and self-consistent way. In short, during DTP, weaker A waves alternate with weaker B waves each day; during TTP, strong A waves and strong B waves appear alternately every day; and there are two weak A waves per day during the STP. The generation mechanism can help in developing future empirical models for generating internal waves using tidal currents, topography, and stratification without requiring complex fluid dynamics calculations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the radiation scheme BCC-RAD (Beijing Climate Center RADiative transfer model) developed for global climate models is implemented into the Global–Regional Integrated SysTem (GRIST) model as an alternative to the default RRTMG (general circulation model (GCM) version of the Rapid Radiative Transfer Model) scheme. Its impact on the simulated climate is comprehensively evaluated under different physics parametrization packages, in comparison with both the CERES (partly from ERA5 reanalysis) observations and multi-model results from CMIP6. The results indicate that under the default physics parameterization package of GRIST (PhysC), BCC-RAD improved the simulated global mean cloud cover by ~3% and the clear-sky outgoing longwave radiation by ~5.6 W/m2. Upon the inclusion of the PhysCN parameterization package, BCC-RAD exhibited further improvement in simulated cloud cover and radiative forcing (particularly longwave radiative forcing, the bias of which decreases from −9.2 W/m2 to −1.8 W/m2), leading it to be closer to observations than RRTMG. Additionally, BCC-RAD improved the simulation of atmospheric temperature and hence notably diminished the apparent overestimation of atmospheric humidity seen in RRTMG. This study demonstrates the advantages of BCC-RAD over RRTMG in certain aspects of the GRIST-simulated climate, verifying its capability for the climate-oriented configuration of GRIST. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The results of a piControl experiment investigating general circulation models participating in the sixth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) were examined. The global interannual variability in the monthly surface temperature (ST) and sea level pressure (SLP) anomalies was considered. The amplitudes of the fluctuations in the anomalies of these meteorological fields between opposite phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) were calculated. It was shown that most CMIP6 models reproduced fluctuations in the ST and SLP anomalies between El Niño and La Niña not only in the equatorial Pacific, but also throughout the tropics, as well as in the middle and high latitudes. Some of the CMIP6 models reproduced the global structures of the ST and SLP anomaly oscillations quite accurately between opposite phases of ENSO, as previously determined from observational data and reanalyses. It was found that the models AS-RCEC TaiESM1, CAMS CAMS-CSM1-0, CAS FGOALS-f3-L, CMCC CMCC-ESM2, KIOST KIOST-ESM, NASA GISS-E2-1-G, NCAR CESM2-WACCM-FV2, and NCC NorCPM1 reproduced strong ENSO teleconnections in regions beyond the tropical Pacific. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Featured Application: Various studies have reported a teleconnection between the El Niño phenomenon in the southern Pacific Ocean and the North-Atlantic Oscillation, which governs the weather in the eastern side of the American continent and most parts of Europe, including the Mediterranean. Though such a relationship has been established to a large degree, it is still unknown whether the El Niño phenomenon can affect atmospheric processes in the mentioned regions. Therefore, the present study investigates the existence of any effect of El Niño on atmospheric radiation and atmospheric aerosols over the Mediterranean region. The Mediterranean area is considered a hot spot on our planet because it represents the crossroads of various aerosols. Several studies have shown that the weather in the region is affected by the North-Atlantic Oscillation, which, in turn, is well connected with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon. Nevertheless, no study has investigated the ENSO effect on the solar radiation and atmospheric aerosols in this region. The present study considers a greater area around the Mediterranean Sea over the period 1980–2022. The results show that there exists a loose but significant dependence, in some cases, of the optical properties of aerosols (aerosol optical depth, Ångström exponent, cloud optical depth) and solar radiation (net short-wave and net long-wave radiation, direct aerosol radiative forcing) on ENSO events. The results of this study provide motivation for further investigations, since such results can increase the accuracy of general circulation models that deal with climate change. Besides the ENSO effect, the enrichment of the Mediterranean atmosphere in suspended particles from great volcanic eruptions is shown. The inter-annual variation of the examined parameters is presented. A classification of the existing aerosols over the area is also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low-flow is the flow of water in a river during prolonged dry weather. This paper investigated the uncertainty originating from hydrological model calibration and structure in low-flow simulations under climate change conditions. Two hydrological models of contrasting complexity, GR4J and SWAT, were applied to four sub-watersheds of the Yamaska River, Canada. The two models were calibrated using seven different objective functions including the Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient (NSEQ) and six other objective functions more related to low flows. The uncertainty in the model parameters was evaluated using a PARAmeter SOLutions procedure (PARASOL). Twelve climate projections from different combinations of General Circulation Models (GCMs) and Regional Circulation Models (RCMs) were used to simulate low-flow indices in a reference (1970-2000) and future (2040-2070) horizon. Results indicate that the NSEQ objective function does not properly represent low-flow indices for either model. The NSE objective function applied to the log of the flows shows the lowest total variance for all sub-watersheds. In addition, these hydrological models should be used with care for low-flow studies, since they both show some inconsistent results. The uncertainty is higher for SWAT than for GR4J. With GR4J, the uncertainties in the simulations for the 7Q2 index (the 7-day low-flow value with a 2-year return period) are lower for the future period than for the reference period. This can be explained by the analysis of hydrological processes. In the future horizon, a significant worsening of low-flow conditions was projected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessment of climate change on reservoir inflow is important for water and power stressed countries. Projected climate is subject to uncertainties related to climate change scenarios and Global Circulation Models (GCMs). This paper discusses the consequences of climate change on discharge. Historical climatic and gauging data were collected from different stations within a watershed. Bias correction was performed on GCMs temperature and precipitation data. After successful development of the hydrological modeling system (SWAT) for the basin, streamflow was simulated for three future periods (2011-2040, 2041-2070, and 2071-2100) and compared with the baseline data (1981-2010) to explore the changes in different flow indicators such as mean flow, low flow, median flow, high flow, flow duration curves, temporal shift in peaks, and temporal shifts in center-of-volume dates. From the results obtained, an overall increase in mean annual flow was projected in the basin under both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. Winter and spring showed a noticeable increase in streamflow, while summer and autumn showed a decrease in streamflow. High flows were predicted to increase, but median flow was projected to decrease in the future under both scenarios. Flow duration curves showed that the probability of occurrence of high flow is likely to be more in the future. It was also noted that peaks were predicted to shift from May to July in the future, and the center-of-volume date of the annual flow may vary from -11 to 23 days in the basin, under both RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. As a whole, the Mangla basin will face more floods and less droughts in the future due to the projected increase in high and low flows, decrease in median flows and greater temporal and magnitudinal variations in peak flows. These outcomes suggest that it is important to consider the influence of climate change on water resources to frame appropriate guidelines for planning and management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research delves into the crucial role of groundwater in underpinning ecosystems and human resilience amidst drastic and unpredictable climate change, particularly as water resources face increasing sustainability concerns due to population surges and climate change. Utilizing a combined approach of SWAT-MODFLOW models, we estimate the streamflow discharge and groundwater recharge in the Choushui River Alluvial Fan, Taiwan. These models allow evaluation of the distribution and proportion of recharge areas as well as the accuracy and the potential influence of future climate change scenarios on groundwater recharge. The findings show a strong correlation between the simulation and actual observations, evidenced by the Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficients (NSE) of 0.920 and 0.846 for calibration and validation in the Choushui River, and 0.549 and 0.548 for the Pei-Kang River, respectively. The model demonstrates a reliable representation of the watershed response, supported by robust statistical performance. The analysis reveals the variable impacts of climate change on groundwater recharge, dependent on the chosen scenario and period. Some scenarios indicate that the maximum observed increase in groundwater recharge is 66.36% under the RCP2.6 scenario in the long-term period (2061–2080), while the minimum observed increase is 29.67% under the RCP4.5 scenario in the initial time frame; however, all demonstrate a decrease ranging from 23.05% to 41.92% across different RCPs in the impact of climate change over time, suggesting a potential long-term decrease in the impact of climate change on groundwater recharge. This study provides indispensable insights into the spatial hotspots in the top fan and the potential range of impact rates of climate change on groundwater recharge, underscoring the importance of continuous research and the thorough evaluation of multiple scenarios. Moreover, we establish a primary framework for using a top-ranked MIROC5 projection of general circulation models (GCMs) to delineate an essential premise that facilitates the advanced exploration of alternative scenario augmentations, bolstering the comprehensive investigation of climate change impacts on groundwater recharge. It is proposed that these findings serve as a guidepost for sustainable water resource management and policy-making in the face of climate change and escalating water demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internal gravity waves (IGWs) in the middle atmosphere are the main source of mesoscale fluctuations of wind and temperature. The parameterization of IGWs and study of their climatology is necessary for the development of global atmospheric circulation models. In this review, we focus on the application of Radio Occultation (RO) observations for the retrieval of IGW parameters. (1) The simplest approach employs the retrieved temperature profiles. It is based on the fact that IGWs are highly anisotropic structures and can be accurately retrieved by RO. The basic assumption is that all the temperature fluctuations are caused by IGWs. The smoothed background temperature profile defines the the Brunt–Väisälä frequency, which, together with the temperature fluctuations, defines the IGW specific potential energy. Many studies have derived the distribution and climatology of potential energy, which is one of the most important characteristics of IGWs. (2) More detailed analysis of the temperature profiles is based on the derivation of the temperature fluctuation spectra. For saturated IGWs, the spectra must obey the power law with an exponent of − 3 . Such spectra are obtained by using Wave Optical (WO) processing. (3) More advanced analysis employs space–frequency analysis. It is based on phase-sensitive techniques like cross S- or wavelet transforms in order to identify propagating IGWs. (4) Another direction is the IGW parameter estimate from separate temperature profiles applying the stability condition in terms of the Richardson number. In this framework, a necessary condition is formulated that defines whether or not the temperature fluctuations can be related to IGW events. The temperature profile retrieval involves integral transforms and filtering that constitute the observation filter. (5) A simpler filter is implemented by the analysis of the RO amplitude fluctuation spectra, based on the diffraction theory in the framework of the phase screen and weak fluctuation approximations. The two spectral parameters, the external scale and the structural characteristic, define the specific potential energy. This approach allows the derivation of the spacial and seasonal distributions of IGW activity. We conclude that the success of IGW study by RO is stimulated by a large number of RO observations and advanced techniques based on Fourier and space–time analysis, physical equations describing IGWs, and diffraction theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and land use/cover change (LUCC) are two major factors that alter hydrological processes. The upper reaches of the Tarim River, situated in the northwest region of China, experience a dry and less rainy climate and are significantly influenced by human activities. This study comprehensively assessed the impacts of individual and combined climate changes and LUCCs on streamflow. Three general circulation models (GCMs) were utilized to predict future climate changes under three shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP119, SSP245, and SSP585). Cellular Automata–Markov (CA–Markov) was employed to predict future LUCC under three scenarios (i.e., ecological protection, historical trend, and farmland development). Streamflow for the period 2021–2050 was simulated using the calibrated MIKE SHE model with multiple scenarios. The results showed that from 2021 to 2050, increments in both average annual precipitation and average annual temperature under the three SSPs were predicted to lead to an increased streamflow. In comparison to the conditions observed in 2000, under three LUCC scenarios for 2030, the grassland area decreased by 1.04% to 1.21%, while the farmland area increased by 1.97% to 2.26%, resulting in reduced streamflow. The related changes analysis indicated that the variation in streamflow during winter is most significant, followed by spring. The study predicted that climate change would increase streamflow, while LUCC would decrease it. Due to the greater impact of LUCC, considering the combined effect of both factors, runoff would decrease. The contribution analysis indicated that climate change contributed between −7.16% and −18.66%, while LUCC contributed between 107.16% and 118.66%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Systematic biases in general circulation models (GCM) and regional climate models (RCM) impede their direct use in climate change impact research. Hence, the bias correction of GCM-RCMs outputs is a primary step in such studies. This study compares the potential of two bias correction methods (the method from the third phase of the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP3) and Detrended Quantile Matching (DQM)) applied to the raw outputs of daily data of minimum and maximum air temperatures and precipitation, in the Cap-Bon region, from eight GCM-RCM combinations. The outputs of GCM/RCM combinations were acquired from the European branch of the coordinated regional climate downscaling experiment (EURO-CORDEX) dataset for historical periods and under two representative concentration pathway (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) scenarios. Furthermore, the best combination of bias correction/GCM-RCM was used to assess the impact of climate change on reference evapotranspiration (ET0). Numerous statistical indicators were considered to evaluate the performance of the bias correction/historical GCM-RCMs compared to the observed data. Trends of the Hargreaves–Samani_ET0 model during the historical and projected periods were determined using the TFPMK method. A comparison of the bias correction methods revealed that, for all the studied model combinations, ISIMIP3 performs better in reducing biases in monthly precipitation. However, for Tmax and Tmin, the biases are greatly removed when the DQM bias correction method is applied. In general, better results were obtained when the HadCCLM model was used. Before applying bias correction, the set of used GCM-RCMs projected reductions in precipitation for most of the months compared to the reference period (1982–2006). However, Tmin and Tmax are expected to increase in all months and for the three studied periods. Hargreaves–Samani ET0 values obtained from the best combination (DQM/ HadCCLM) show that RCP8.5 (2075–2098) will exhibit the highest annual ET0 increase compared to the RCP4.5 scenario and the other periods, with a change rate equal to 11.85% compared to the historical period. Regarding spring and summer seasons, the change rates of ET0 are expected to reach 10.44 and 18.07%, respectively, under RCP8.5 (2075–2098). This study shows that the model can be used to determine long-term trends in ET0 patterns for diverse purposes, such as water resources planning, agricultural crop management and irrigation scheduling in the Cap-Bon region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change may significantly impact the availability and quality of water resources in dam reservoirs by potentially altering the hydrological regime of lake tributaries and the corresponding flow–duration curves. Hydrological models driven by climate projections (downscaled to the watershed scale and bias corrected to eliminate systematic errors) are effective tools for assessing this potential impact. To assess the uncertainty in future water resource availability, resulting from the inherent uncertainty in climate model projections, an ensemble of climate models and different climate scenarios can be considered. The reliability and effectiveness of this approach were illustrated by analyzing the potential impact of climate change on the water availability at Brugneto Lake in northern Italy. This analysis was based on climate projections derived from an ensemble of 13 combinations of General Circulation Models and Regional Climate Models under two distinct scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5). The semi-distributed HEC-HMS model was adopted to simulate the hydrological response of the basin upstream of the lake. The hydrological model parameters were calibrated automatically via the PEST software package using the inflows to the lake, estimated through a reverse level pool routing method, as observed values. Future water availability was predicted for short- (2010–2039), medium- (2040–2069), and long-term (2070–2099) periods. The results indicate that the uncertainty in reservoir inflow is primarily due to the uncertainty in future rainfall. A moderate reduction in water availability is expected for Brugneto Lake by the end of the current century, accompanied by modifications in the flow regime. These changes should be considered when planning future adaptation measures and adjusting reservoir management rules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study delved into the analysis of hourly observed as well as future precipitation data in the towns of Willoughby and Buffalo on the Lake Erie Coast to examine the variations in IDF relationships over the 21st century. Several regional climate models (RCMs) and general circulation models (GCMs) from the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) Phases 5 and 6 were used. The study evaluated three RCMs with historical and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 8.5 scenarios for each CMIP5 and three GCMs with historical and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) (126, 245, 370, and 585) scenarios for each CMIP6. The results suggested that the town of Willoughby would experience an increase of 9–46%, whereas Buffalo would experience an upsurge of 6–140% in the hourly precipitation intensity under the worst-case scenarios of RCP8.5 for CMIP5 and SSP585 for CMIP6. This increase is expected to occur in both the near (2020–2059) and far future (2060–2099), with a return period as low as 2 years and as high as 100 years when compared to the baseline period (1980–2019). The analysis indicated an increased range of 9–39% in the near future and 20–55% in the far future for Willoughby, while the Buffalo region may experience an increase of 2–95% in the near future and 3–192% in the far future as compared to the baseline period. In contrast to CMIP6 SSP585 models, CMIP5 RCP8.5 models predicted rainfall with an intensity value that is up to 28% higher in the town of Willoughby, while the reverse was true for the Buffalo region. The findings of this study are expected to be helpful for the design of water resource infrastructures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change plays a vital role in the hydrology of any river basin, which may have multidimensional consequences. There is a need to conduct climate change impact assessment studies with updated models and scenarios. This study aimed to assess the impact of climate change on the streamflow and hydropower in Pakistan's Kunhar River basin. Three general circulation models (GCMs), under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathway scenarios (SSPs 2–45 and 5–85), the Soil and Water Assessment Tool, and the flow duration curve were used to project the change in climatic parameters, streamflow, and hydropower potential, respectively. The findings indicated that in the 2080s, the precipitation, maximum, and minimum temperatures are projected to increase by 10%, 2.0 °C, and 3.0 °C under the SSP 2–45 scenario and are projected to increase by 8%, 3.7 °C, and 4.4 °C under the SSP 5–85 scenario, respectively. The annual streamflow may increase by 15 to 11%, and the seasonal fluctuations are more likely to be dominant compared with the annual fluctuations. The hydropower potential will probably increase by 24 to 16% under the SSP 2–45 and 5–85 scenarios in the 2080s. However, seasonal changes in streamflow and hydropower may impact the hydropower plant operation in the basin. The Kunhar River's hydrology may change from snow-fed to a rainfall–runoff river. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cloud top height (CTH) is an essential pareter for the general circulation model in understanding the impact of clouds on the Earth's radiation budget and global climate change. This paper compares the CTH products, derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), onboard the Aqua and Terra satellites with ground-based Ka band radar data in Beijing from 2014 to 2017. The aim was to investigate the data accuracy and the difference in CTH measurements between passive satellite data and active ground-based radar data. The results show that MODIS, on average, underestimates CTH relative to radar by −1.08 ± 2.48 km, but with a median difference of −0.65 km and about 48% of differences are within 1 km. Statistically, MODIS CTHs which are greater than 6 km show lower discrepancy to radar CTH than those of MODIS CTHs less than 4 km. The CTH difference is independent of cloud fraction and cloud layer. It shows strong dependence on cloud depth, decreasing as cloud depth increases. There is a tendency for MODIS to underestimate high thin clouds but overestimate low thin clouds relative to radar. Total ozone, SO2, CO, NO2, aerosol PM10, total water vapor and temperature inversion show unobvious influences in the CTH discrepancy. It is shown that the MODIS CO2-slicing technique performs much better than IRW (infrared window) technique when cloud layer is higher than 2 km. The average difference calculated from all comparisons by CO2-slicing technique and IRW technique is 0.09 ± 1.58 km, and −2.20 ± 2.73 km, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oceanic general circulation models (OGCMs) are important tools used to investigate mechanisms for ocean climate variability and predict the ocean change in the future. However, in most current ocean models, the impact of sea surface waves as one of the most significant dynamic processes in the upper ocean is absent. In this study, the Stokes drift and the vertical mixing induced by nonbreaking surface waves derived from the wave model (WAVEWATCH III) are incorporated into a Climate System Ocean Model, and their effects on an ocean climate simulation are analyzed. Numerical experiments show that both physical processes can improve the simulation of sea surface temperature (SST) and mixed layer depth (MLD) in the Southern Hemisphere. The introduction of Stokes drift effectively reduces the subsurface warm bias in the equatorial tropics, which is caused by the weakening of vertical mixing in the equatorial region. The nonbreaking surface wave mainly reduces the temperature bias in the Southern Ocean by enhancing mixing in the upper ocean. For the MLD, the Stokes drift mainly improves the simulation of the winter MLD, and the nonbreaking surface wave improves the summer MLD. For MLD south of 40° S in summer, the introduction of nonbreaking surface waves resulted in a reduction of 11.86 m in MLD bias and 7.8 m in root mean square errors (RMSEs), respectively. For winter subtropical MLD in the Southern Hemisphere, considering the Stokes drift, the MLD bias and RMSEs were reduced by 2.49 and 5.39 m, respectively. Adding these two physical processes simultaneously provides the best simulation performance for the structure of the upper layer. The introduction of sea surface waves effectively modulates the vertical mixing of the upper ocean and then improves the simulation of the MLD. Thus, sea surface waves are very important for ocean simulation, so we will further couple a sea waves model in the Chinese Academy of Sciences Earth System Model (CAS-ESM) as part of their default model component. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Specialty crops with long economic life cycles have lower adaptability and flexibility to climate change, making long-term planning crucial. This study examines the impact of climate change on almond, citrus, pistachio, and walnut production in California, using a machine learning approach to estimate crop suitability under current and future environmental conditions. We used recent satellite-observed cropland data to generate an occurrence dataset for these crops. Ecological data including bioclimatic variables derived from global circulation models developed under the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) and surface variables were used to model suitability. The bioclimatic variables relating to temperature and precipitation had the largest effect on each crop's suitability estimation. The results indicate that suitable areas for almonds, citrus, and walnuts will change significantly within 20 years due to climatic change, and the change will be even greater by the end of the century, indicating a potential loss of 94% of the current suitable area. The results for pistachios indicate change in the spatial distribution of suitable area but the total area is predicted to remain near the current suitable area. Policymakers, researchers, and farmers must work together to develop proactive adaptation strategies to mitigate the negative effects of climate change on specialty crop production. The application of a species distribution model for agriculture suitability provides critical information for future work on adaptation to climate change, identifying areas to target for further analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyses the impact of climate change on the inflows, sediment loads, and nutrient inputs to the Sabalan dam reservoir, a warm monomictic lake located northwest of Iran. For this purpose, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was calibrated (2005–2018) and validated (2001–2004). Future climate-based data under the AR5 emission scenarios were obtained from the HadGEM2–ES general circulation model and then downscaled using the LARSWG 6.0. The tuned SWAT model was used to investigate the climate change impact on the hydrological processes and pollution loads to the Sabalan dam reservoir. Our findings based on the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient and the coefficient of determination indicated an acceptable performance of the SWAT model in the simulation of inflows, sediment loads, and nutrient inputs to the reservoir. Inflow and sediment load to the reservoir will increase during the period of 2030–2070 compared to the base period (1998–2018). The annual total nitrogen (phosphorus) load to the reservoir will increase by 8.5% (9.4%), 7.3% (8.2%), and 5% (3.4%) under the emission scenarios of RCP2.6, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5, respectively. An increase in sediment loads and nutrient inputs to the Sabalan dam reservoir will significantly exacerbate the reservoir eutrophic condition, leading to water quality deterioration with acute consequences for the positive functions of the dam. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Along with the concept of improving reforestation efforts in Lebanon, this study aimed to provide a land suitability analysis for forest species in Lebanon while considering the effect of climate change. Herein, the soil evaluation criteria developed by FAO (The Food and Agriculture Organization) for land suitability classification were implemented through the weighted overlay method to produce suitability maps based on natural variables (soil, climate, and topography) influencing the presence of the species on the land. Cedrus libani, Quercus calliprinos, Ceratonia siliqua, Eucalyptus globulus, and Pinus halepensis are the species considered in this study. The results of this study provide useful information to inform reforestation activities in Lebanon, considering the expected climate change projections for medium- (2050) and long-term (2070) periods, according to two different scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) and three General Circulation Models: CCSM4, GFDL-CM3, and HadGEM2-ES. The suitability maps showed a generally critical situation for the spatial distribution of forest species under future climate change compared to the current situation (1970–2000). The distribution of thermophilic species, which tolerate high temperatures (over 20 °C), was projected to expand compared to the current situation. In contrast, the expansion of cold-adapted species may be limited by future climate change conditions. It is crucial to consider the expected effects of climate change to better select species for reforestation and, therefore, to maintain forest cover in Lebanon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, hydropower accounts for close to 16% of the world's total power supply and is the world's most dominant (86%) source of renewable electrical energy. The key resource for hydropower generation is runoff, which is dependent on precipitation. The future global climate is uncertain and thus poses some risk for the hydropower generation sector. The crucial question and challenge then is what will be the impact of climate change on global hydropower generation and what are the resulting regional variations in hydropower generation potential? This paper is a study that aims to evaluate the changes in global hydropower generation resulting from predicted changes in climate. The study uses an ensemble of simulations of regional patterns of changes in runoff, computed from global circulation models (GCM) simulations with 12 different models. Based on these runoff changes, hydropower generation is estimated by relating the runoff changes to hydropower generation potential through geographical information system (GIS), based on 2005 hydropower generation. Hydropower data obtained from EIA (energy generation), national sites, FAO (water resources) and UNEP were used in the analysis. The countries/states were used as computational units to reduce the complexities of the analysis. The results indicate that there are large variations of changes (increases/decreases) in hydropower generation across regions and even within regions. Globally, hydropower generation is predicted to change very little by the year 2050 for the hydropower system in operation today. This change amounts to an increase of less than 1% of the current (2005) generation level although it is necessary to carry out basin level detailed assessment for local impacts which may differ from the country based values. There are many regions where runoff and hydropower generation will increase due to increasing precipitation, but also many regions where there will be a decrease. Based on this evaluation, it has been concluded that even if individual countries and regions may experience significant impacts, climate change will not lead to significant changes in the global hydropower generation, at least for the existing hydropower system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evaluation of general circulation models (GCM) is a fundamental step in climate research in terms of both quality assurance/quality control and realistic representation of the dynamics of the atmospheric flows in the future projections. In this paper, a statistical method is introduced to evaluate GCMs with respect to teleconnection patterns in the winter 500 hPa geopotential height field over the Northern Hemisphere (NH). The procedure uses the combination of negative extrema method and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The proposed method is demonstrated using selected general circulation models (GCMs) disseminated by the CMIP5 project. The ERA-20C reanalysis was used as a reference, supported by the NCEP/NCAR R1 reanalysis. The proposed method enables us to track changes in the geographical positions of the action centers (ACs); therefore, to detect improvement/deterioration in the GCM performance with time. It was found that the majority of the GCMs reproduce prominent teleconnections of the NH but fail to capture the eastward shift of the ACs over the Pacific Ocean in the last decades of the 20th century. The GCMs reproduce teleconnections with stronger correlations over the north-western part of the Atlantic Ocean compared to the reanalyses. The construction of mobile teleconnection indices is proposed to gain further insight into the performance of the models and to support a regional-scale analysis. The method can be easily applied to the recent CMIP6 simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical Atlantic Warm Pool is one of the main drivers of the marine intertropical convergence zone and the associated coastal Northeast Brazilian and West-African monsoons. Its meridional displacement is driven by the solar cycle, modulated by the atmosphere and ocean interactions, whose nature and respective proportions are still poorly understood. This paper presents a climatological study of the upper ocean and lower atmosphere contributions to the warm pool seasonal migration, using an Ocean General Circulation Model (OGCM). First, we provide quantitative, albeit simple, pieces of evidence on how the large amplitude of migration in the west, compared to the east, is mainly due to the strong east–west contrast of the background meridional SST gradient intensities, which is maintained by equatorial and eastern tropical upwellings. Our main results consist first in identifying a diagnostic equation for the migration speed of the two meridional boundary isotherms of the Warm Pool, expressed in terms of the various mixed-layer heat fluxes. We then evidence and quantify how, in general, the migration is forced by air–sea fluxes, and damped by ocean circulation. However, remarkable controls by the ocean are identified in some specific regions. In particular, in the northwestern part of the Warm Pool, characterized by a large temperature inversion area, the boreal spring northward movement speed depends on the restitution of the solar heating by the thermocline. Additionally, over the southern part of the Warm Pool, our study quantifies the key role of the equatorial upwelling, which, depending on the longitude, significantly accelerates or slows down the summer poleward migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrological modeling relies on the inputs provided by General Circulation Model (GCM) data, as this allows researchers to investigate the effects of climate change on water resources. But there is high uncertainty in the climate projections with various ensembles and variables. Therefore, it is very important to carry out bias correction in order to analyze the impacts of climate change at a regional level. The performance evaluation of bias correction methods for precipitation, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature in the Upper Bhima sub-basin has been investigated. Four bias correction methods are applied for precipitation viz. linear scaling (LS), local intensity scaling (LOCI), power transformation (PT), and distribution mapping (DM). Three bias correction methods are applied for temperature viz. linear scaling (LS), variance scaling (VS), and distribution mapping (DM). The evaluation of the results from these bias correction methods is performed using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov non-parametric test. The results indicate that bias correction methods are useful in reducing biases in model-simulated data, which improves their reliability. The results of the distribution mapping bias correction method have been proven to be more effective for precipitation, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature data from CMIP5-simulated data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) has changed dramatically during the glacial–interglacial cycle. One leading hypothesis for these abrupt changes is thermohaline instability. Here, I review recent progress towards understanding thermohaline instability in both observations and modelling. Proxy records available seem to favor thermohaline instability as the cause of the abrupt climate changes during the glacial–deglacial period because the deep North Atlantic water mass and AMOC seemed to have changed before the North Atlantic climate. However, most fully Coupled General Circulation Models (CGCMs) so far seem to exhibit monostable AMOC, because (1) these models have failed to simulate abrupt AMOC changes unless they are forced by an abrupt change of external forcing and, (2) these models have shown opposite freshwater convergence from the current observations. This potential model bias in the AMOC stability leaves the model projection of the future AMOC change uncertain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Southeast Europe is considered one of the most vulnerable regions in the context of climate change, and projected future summer warming is expected to exceed global rates significantly. Despite the importance of this problem, there have been few studies that utilized Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5 (CMIP5) Global Circulation Models (GCMs) and the multi-model ensemble approach to examine extreme heat events on a regional scale. Additionally, the NEX-GDDP dataset, successfully applied in other parts of the world to assess extreme heat, has not yet been utilized for Southeast Europe. This study aims to fill that gap, presenting the time evolution and spatial distribution of extreme heat events in Southeast Europe for the historical period 1950–2005 and for the expected future climate up to the end of the 21st century based on the NEX-GDDP dataset. In order to leverage the strengths of the multi-model ensemble approach, a set of purpose-tailored indicators, such as the annual number of hot days, the maximum number of consecutive hot days, and hot spell duration at different thresholds, is computed by the daily maximum temperature data from all datasets, produced by NEX-GDDP (21 for the historical period and 42 for the future period). The E-OBS dataset is used as a reference for evaluating the NEX-GDDP's capability to simulate the features of the observed historical extreme heat events. The results show that the multi-model ensemble can satisfactorily capture the occurrence of extreme heat events in the historical period, and therefore it is reasonable to assume that the NEX-GDDP dataset has the potential to reproduce such extremes in the projected future. The study provides clear evidence that the persistence and spatial extent of extreme heat will increase significantly. Some indicators that were not relevant for the historical period due to the high-temperature threshold will become helpful in assessing extreme heat in Southeast Europe in the latter part of the century. Thus, under the RCP8.5 scenario, the area-averaged duration of hot spells at 32 °C and 34 °C will increase from near zero in 1976–2005 to 60 and 45 days, respectively, by the end of the century. The indicators used in the study may be helpful for decision-makers to implement climate change mitigation strategies and actions adequately. The findings are consistent with general tendencies in maximum temperatures considered in our previous works but also with the outcomes of recent studies dedicated to the future climate of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive study to assess the impact of climate change on Egypt's water resources, focusing on irrigation water for agricultural crops, considering that the agriculture sector is the largest consumer of water in Egypt. The study aims to estimate future climate conditions using general circulation models (GCMs), to assess the impact of climate change and temperature increase on water demands for irrigation using the CROPWAT 8 model, and to determine the suitable irrigation type to adapt with future climate change. A case study was selected in the Middle part of Egypt. The study area includes Giza, Bani-Sweif, Al-Fayoum, and Minya governorates. The irrigation water requirements for major crops under current weather conditions and future climatic changes were estimated. Under the conditions of the four selected models CCSM-30, GFDLCM20, GFDLCM21, and GISS-EH, as well as the chosen scenario of A1BAIM, climate model (MAGICC/ScenGen) was applied in 2050 and 2100 to estimate the potential rise in the annual mean temperature in Middle Egypt. The results of the MAGICC/SceGen model indicated that the potential rise in temperature in the study area will be 2.12 °C in 2050, and 3.96 °C in 2100. The percentage of increase in irrigation water demands for winter crops under study ranged from 6.1 to 7.3% in 2050, and from 11.7 to 13.2% in 2100. At the same time, the increase in irrigation water demands for summer crops ranged from 4.9 to 5.8% in 2050, and from 9.3 to 10.9% in 2100. For Nili crops, the increase ranged from 5.0 to 5.1% in 2050, and from 9.6 to 9.9% in 2100. The increase in water demands due to climate change will affect the water security in Egypt, as the available water resources are limited, and population growth is another challenge which requires a proper management of water resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wind forecasts are widely spread because of the growth in wind power, but also because there are other applications to consider, such as the long-term scenario forecasts regarding the effects of global warming. Overall, there have been big developments in global circulation models (GCM) that inform future scenarios at the large scale, but wind forecast at a local scale is a problem that has not totally been solved. It should be possible to estimate the winds in the near field with a certain accuracy, which is interesting for aspects such as the blowing of incident wind at wind farms, the wind on a dune in movement, or the wind blowing in a harbour. Therefore, a data-driven wind transference equation at a local scale is needed. Among the conclusions, it is worthy to state that the statistical downscaling techniques are suitable for application as a statistical inference at small scales. The aim of this paper is therefore to review the current methods and techniques used and show the different methodologies and their applications in the field. Additional targets will be to identify the advantages, disadvantages, or limitations of the current models at the local scale and propose research to find possible improvements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]