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Iranian traditional residential architecture is renowned for its central-courtyard houses, which are admired for their grandeur. While the courtyards and nearby spaces receive considerable artistic and historical appreciation, those situated further away often receive less attention. These areas are typically considered auxiliary and less functional for living, thereby receiving limited attention in architectural discussions. This study examines 26 traditional central-courtyard houses to investigate how spaces located farther from the courtyard ('second-order') compare to those directly adjacent ('first-order'). It challenges the assumption that distance from the courtyard correlates with reduced functionality. Surprisingly, the analysis identifies similar architectural characteristics in both second-order and first-order spaces, suggesting that distant areas may serve functional roles comparable to those nearer the courtyard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the role of vegetation in enhancing thermal comfort and achieving energy savings in educational building courtyards located in hot, arid climates. The research focuses on an educational building courtyard in New Aswan City, Egypt, and employs a combination of field monitoring and numerical simulations to evaluate the thermal performance of the space. The study utilized the ENVI-met V5.5.1 model for thermal assessment and the Design-Builder software version 6.1.3.007 to quantify the potential energy savings. Nine different vegetation scenarios were proposed and analyzed to identify the most effective strategies for improving the courtyard's thermal conditions. The results demonstrate that a 60% coverage of the courtyard with Cassia Nodosa vegetation produced the most significant improvements. This scenario led to a decrease of over 25.4 °C in physiological equivalent temperature (PET) and a reduction of more than 31.3 °C in mean radiant temperature (Tmrt). Moreover, the energy savings achieved were approximately 19.2%. Interestingly, the study also observed an unexpected decrease in the temperature mitigation efficacy of Ficus nitida when vegetation coverage was increased from 40% to 60%. This phenomenon can be attributed to the complex interplay between the inherent characteristics of the Ficus nitida species and the microclimatic factors within the courtyard environment. These findings provide valuable insights for designers and architects to integrate effective vegetation strategies into the design of educational building courtyards in hot, arid climates. By enhancing thermal comfort and reducing energy consumption, this approach can contribute to the creation of more sustainable and comfortable learning environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor wind conditions in metropolitan areas can result in inadequate ventilation and degradation of the thermal environment. Several researches have demonstrated that the building ground floor elevation (BGFE) enhances the wind conditions surrounding buildings. Further investigation is required to thoroughly examine the BGFE's impact on the wind conditions in the courtyard area. We researched how the various overhead placements affect the ventilation of a U-shaped school building's courtyard space in different wind directions. We performed Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) numerical simulation experiments on 93 overhead scenarios based on field measurements and validation. The statistical analysis of the experimental data revealed that the BGFE had significant effects on reducing the mean air age (p < 0.001), standard deviation of air age (p < 0.01), standard deviation of wind speed (p < 0.001), and mean wind speed (p < 0.01) in the courtyard space. The BGFE in the northeastern zone of the U-shaped school building significantly increased the mean air age (p < 0.05), while the BGFE in the middle and southwestern zones significantly decreased the mean air age (p < 0.001), and the BGFE in the southeastern zone significantly decreased the mean wind speed (p < 0.05). The BGFE facilitates the entry of fresh air and offers even ventilation while significantly reducing wind speed. Choose sites C and D to enhance the U-shaped courtyard's ventilation and avoid locations B and E. This paper's findings provide theoretical guidance for designing the elevation of courtyard space from a ventilation perspective and for the green rehabilitation of existing buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The campus courtyards in the Lingnan area are commonly used spaces. Therefore, their thermal comfort is highly important for improving user satisfaction. This study conducted field research on 18 courtyards in four universities in Lingnan to explore the effects of their architectural design factors on the thermal environment. Relevant studies have proved that courtyards are cost-effective in microclimate regulation, and individual factors such as the scale and openness of the courtyards have also been shown to have an effect on the thermal comfort of the courtyards. This study synthesizes multidimensional architectural design factors to explore and analyze the thermal environments of college courtyards. Physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) is selected as the thermal comfort evaluation index for the study and the conclusions are as follows: (1) The thermal environment is the most important factor influencing visitors to the courtyards (22%), and good thermal comfort improves the efficiency of using the college courtyards; (2) the courtyards have a positive microclimate regulating function, and a cooling effect occurs in 80% of them; and (3) the floor location, type, orientation, and sky view factor (SVF) of the courtyards are the main design factors affecting the thermal environment and PET. The first three factors were negatively correlated with PET (p < 0.05),and SVF was positively correlated with PET (p = 0.651). Passive courtyard design strategies are presented based on the findings of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the effects of climate change and urbanisation intensify, liveability and comfort in outdoor spaces decrease. Because of large spaces exposed to solar radiation and low crossing of airflows, courtyard buildings are extremely vulnerable in this regard. However, there are significant gaps in the literature on outdoor comfort in courtyards, especially regarding the effect of border configuration (including gap position and features), as well that of tree density. The study proposes a methodology—to be used during preliminary design—to compare the effect of alternative scenarios for courtyard buildings on outdoor microclimate, varying both the building perimeter configuration and courtyard vegetation layout. A matrix is set to combine the two variables and select relevant scenarios, which are then simulated in ENVI-met focusing on air temperature, wind speed and physiological equivalent temperature (PET). A case study in Bologna, Italy (humid subtropical climate) is presented as an example of the implementation. The resulting outdoor microclimate maps and frequency diagrams are compared and discussed. It emerges that both variables have a role in outdoor comfort: while gap configuration affects air temperature more (up to a difference of 1 °C), tree density impacts PET by up to 2 °C difference. The methodology can be replicated in several other contexts to support the optimisation of courtyard building design from the early stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Providing thermal comfort in the courtyards of academic buildings is important and increasing tree canopy coverage (TCC) presents a convenient and feasible method to achieve this; however, few studies have comprehensively evaluated the cooling effects of TCC, considering both outdoor thermal comfort and heat dynamics. In this study, we selected two typical academic buildings at Guangzhou University, each with courtyards having different height-to-width ratios (H/W ratios). We employed both field measurements and ENVI-met-based numerical models to simulate scenarios with varying TCCs. The results demonstrated that the cooling effects caused by arranging trees increase with the TCC values. During the hottest hours of the day, trees arranged in courtyards with high H/W ratios exhibited a superior cooling effect compared to those in courtyards with low H/W ratios, with a difference of up to 0.6 °C in the PET (physiological equivalent temperature); however, over the entire daytime, the total sensible heat reduction achieved by trees in courtyards with low H/W ratios surpassed that of courtyards with high H/W ratios, with a difference of up to 0.25 × 104 J/m2. Our findings underscore the crucial role of TCC in enhancing cooling in the courtyard of academic buildings, with important implications for university planning and design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As clan and blood relations are the essential core of rural social attributes, the rise and fall of the main family names in a village not only affects the spatial arrangement of their internal courtyard houses but also influences the overall spatial pattern of the village. Taking Pei Cheng Village as an example, in this study, quantitative analyses, such as those entailing standard deviation ellipse, kernel density, and space syntax, are incorporated to investigate the changes in rural family names' courtyard houses and the historical context for these changes to reveal the influence of the evolution of courtyard house distribution under a given social structure on the overall spatial structure of the countryside at the micro- and meso-scales. The results in this study show that there is strong aggregation and bonding associated with the main family surname in a village and that such surnames have an important correlation with the village centre and spatial structure formation. Notably, the distribution of the surname-bearing clan courtyard houses has a certain degree of consistency with the spatial pattern of the village, with the main space corresponding to the main family surname, the secondary space corresponding to the secondary family, and the underdeveloped space corresponding to mixed family surnames. On this basis, the spatial system grading of Pei Cheng Village is summarized, providing a fundamental basis for future planning of Pei Cheng Village facilities and other aspects of planning, such as the selection of locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quality of residential buildings in old urban areas of Beijing is known to be inconsistent, prompting numerous urban renewal projects in the city. This research investigates how building space impacts energy usage and daylighting in courtyard areas of old urban regions in northern China. It also proposes a quick evaluation method for building performance in courtyard spaces, utilizing multi-objective optimization and machine learning classification prediction as a theoretical framework. A study was conducted to gather and organize building space parameters and their corresponding performances using a genetic algorithm. The dataset was then pre-processed and trained using the LightGBM algorithm. The model validation results revealed a recall of 0.9 and an F1-score of 0.8. These scores indicate that the design scheme's performance level can be accurately identified in practical use. The goal of this study is to propose a set of rapid assessment methods for building performance levels in courtyard spaces. These methods can significantly improve the feedback efficiency between design decision and performance assessment, reduce the time wasted in building performance simulation during the architectural design process, and avoid unreasonable renovation and addition in urban renewal. Furthermore, the research method has universality and can be applied to courtyard-shaped buildings in other regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 10th century, the arrabales of Córdoba underwent a process of rapid growth, triggered by the growing political authority of the capital of the western caliphate. This involved the urbanisation of erstwhile agricultural areas, with new streets and public buildings such as baths, mosques, and funduqs, as well as whole blocks of houses. Domestic blocks generally took the shape of lines of houses that were similar in plan. Among domestic models, which invariably revolved around a courtyard, the most basic type—rectangular in plan, with a central courtyard and a bay on either side—was also the most numerous. This work examines the characteristics and expansions of these buildings, in order to better understand the process that led to the crystallisation of Andalusi urban fabrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the past decades, many traditional vernacular buildings have been forced to be demolished or abandoned due to the accelerating trend of urbanisation in China, which has resulted in regional culture, historical memory, and architectural narratives being gradually lost. The contemporary development of courtyard-style architecture under the influence of Confucianism, an important architectural form that carries Chinese culture, remains unclear. To preserve these vernacular buildings and local culture, this paper traces the historical value of courtyard houses. Through a case study, the effectiveness of local courtyard-style building rehabilitation in Shandong is assessed, and key components, building materials, and construction techniques corresponding to Confucian cultural connotations are examined, leading to a more comprehensive dialectical analysis of building rehabilitation. The results indicated that rehabilitation can be effective in preserving vernacular components and cultural narratives in the context of sustainable development strategies for traditional buildings. Moreover, by identifying and evaluating the sense of place and rehabilitation strategies of the architectural heritage, new perspectives are offered to the world of vernacular architectural practice, and existing knowledge of the architectural courtyard is expanded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Castle of Melfi is placed on a hilltop overlooking the modern town and it includes many buildings that have been modified and expanded over time. Its Norman-era core was probably built between the end of the 11th and the start of the 12th century on top of an earlier Byzantine castrum; it was enlarged during the reign of Frederick II and additional alterations were undertaken during the reigns of the Angevin and Aragonese. Integrated ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) surveys were carried out inside two courtyards of the westernmost part of the castle, the Cortile degli Armigeri and the Cortile del Mortorio, and in an external eastern wall area in order to identify ancient buried structures through two different methods of investigation and to compare the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A courtyard is an essential space for natural lighting and natural convective ventilation of residential buildings in hot-humid climates. This study focuses on the internal courtyard configuration on the thermal performance of long strip houses (LSH) in the hot-climate area of Hainan Island, China. The aim is to identify the best design parameters for the courtyard to improve thermal comfort in modern LSH design. Appropriate strategies, including Mahoney table, field investigation, and CFD simulation, are used to determine thermal performance. As a result, the design guidelines of the courtyard are proposed to optimize the thermal comfort towards energy saving. The study reveals the spatial characteristics and climate regulation of internal courtyards in traditional LSH. In addition, the simulation results show that the enclosure with a shaded cover and a high ratio of H/D is conducive to thermal environment and ventilation, and the section of contracted shape from bottom to top is a preferred option in the internal courtyard configuration. This study should, therefore, be of value in designing practical projects with an interior courtyard for architects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since ancient times, courtyards have played a vital role in architecture, particularly in domestic architecture. Over time, the existence of vernacular architecture has made beauty and harmony; these have always been important components of traditional Libyan architecture. Studying traditional vernacular architecture is key to maintaining vernacular architecture knowledge; this is because these principles, such as modular design, geometry, and proportions, are detectable characteristics of the tradition. Architecturally, proportion is an aspiration of the implementation of design grammar that encloses shapes of structure. A good impression upon the beholders builds in relation to different elements of space, such as a scale of geometric shapes, patterns, organisation, and the hierarchy of space relationships, to achieve aesthetic dimensions, in part and as a whole. In this article, the study searches for a modular, or proportion, that rules the geometric design of traditional houses in Libya. This is conducted through examining the geometry of typical traditional houses and the golden section method to find if a certain proportional relationship existed. From this perspective, the vision relied on studying the form suitability; in addition, it involved an analysis of the elevation as well as the interior courtyard proportion in relation to the building area. The outcome of this research is to find the aesthetic values that could generate a good design of domestic architecture; and to prove whether they are a perfect match with the proportion system and modular design used in traditional houses. The study employs the quantitative method, which includes archival documents, direct observation, and on-site documentation. The study involved an in-depth examination of the proportioning and geometrical principles used in traditional houses and courtyards. Their respective roles in creating harmony and beauty are discussed in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research is to develop an architectural style commensurate with the requirements of residential buildings in the hot and dry climate of Najran. The courtyard concept is one of the most important passive design strategies most in tune with the desert climate. The courtyard concept also meets the sociocultural requirements of the region. The success of this strategy can be verified by selecting a typical residential unit (villa) and assessing its indoor environmental conditions and energy performance. The villa can then be redesigned with the same functional and spatial determinants while creating a courtyard at the heart of the new villa configuration. To determine the level of improvement resulting from the proposed solution, the energy consumption per square meter is measured, and the results are compared with the DesignBuilder simulation program. The results indicate that with the proposed design focused mainly on the courtyard and some passive design strategies, the total energy consumption is reduced by 32.80% compared to the base case. The research concludes with a set of recommendations related to opportunities to improve the quality of the indoor environment and reduce cooling energy demand, in addition to achieving privacy for occupants and meeting the sociocultural requirements in the context of preserving Islamic values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feng shui in ancient China was harmonized with the natural environment. The layout of houses following feng shui is conducive to a comfortable wind environment. To explore the positive influence of feng shui on ventilation, this study takes Prince Kung's Mansion, which has the characteristics of a feng shui layout, as the research object. In parallel, the study assumes a dissimilation layout that has lost the feng shui layout characteristics. Comparing the ventilation of courtyards in the summer for both the feng shui layout and the dissimilation layout through CFD simulation, the results were as follows: (1) the wind speed values in the summer, taken from 60 points in Prince Kung's Mansion by way of CFD simulation and field experiments, were well coupled, which proves that PHOENICS is suitable for the courtyard wind environments simulation in this study. (2) The CFD simulation results show that the average wind speed and the comfortable wind speed zone ratio in the courtyards of the feng shui layout were higher than those of the dissimilation layout during the summer, and the courtyard wind speeds of the two layouts were linearly related. Therefore, the feng shui layout is more conducive to the comfort of courtyards' wind environment than the dissimilation layout. (3) The front and rear wind pressure differences of the main houses in the feng shui layout can optimize the indoor ventilation better than those of dissimilation layout in the summer. (4) According to the evaluation criteria for the wind environment, the wind speed and wind pressure of the feng shui layout are superior to those of dissimilation layout in the summer. In summary, this study verifies that the layout of feng shui optimizes the courtyard wind environment in the summer, which embodies the ecological concept of the Chinese ancients in the layout of houses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Francisco Conde-Valvís's so-called "stone treasure" is a set of unique carved stone pieces, such as bases, column shafts, a mortar, and decorated fragments (trisqueles and rosettes), found during the 2018 excavation campaign in the Cibdá de Armea (Allariz, Ourense). They had been piled up and re-buried—no records existed as to where—at the western end of the Finca de A Atalaia, which was excavated in the 1950s under the direction of Conde-Valvís and began to be excavated again in 2011. The thorough review of the graphic and textual material available from the old excavations allowed us to determine the original archaeological context of the pieces. Most of these elements belonged to the atria of the so-called "Domus of Hexasquel" (North house) and "Domus of the Rosette" (South house). Once we established the origin of all the elements, especially with the aid of the old photographs, it was decided to reintegrate them into the site, to increase the educational and interpretive value of Armea, instead of burying them indefinitely in the warehouses of a museum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper explores the possibilities of the structural and functional transformation of blocks in the historical center of Zagreb as a part of modernization after many years of neglect as well as earthquakes in 2020. The research aims to determine how the existing block tissue corresponds with the needs of today's residents and the possibility of its improvement. The historical circumstances in which the blocks were formed and underwent the most significant changes and modern processes that affect the state and value are determined. There is a special focus on the interior of the block (courtyards), as well as on the spaces on the ground floors of street facades, where numerous, unexplored changes can be observed. The findings provide starting points for desirable structural–functional transformations of blocks and stem from the synthesis and interpretation of knowledge from four interrelated parts of the research. The characteristics of blocks have changed during city development stages, as depicted by an analysis and graphic interpretation of historical maps and urban plans (1864–2021). Influences of modern processes on changes of the city are determined on the basis of the synthesis of previous research from different interdisciplinary points of view; a detailed analysis of the structural–functional changes is conducted on the example of three selected blocks. Transformation models for three selected blocks are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The acoustic environments of Han Chinese Buddhist temples have long played an important role in the development of Buddhism. This study explored the effects of layouts and spatial elements of Han Chinese Buddhist temples on courtyard sound fields. First, sound fields of three traditional Han Chinese courtyards were measured, and results were compared with sound field simulations to determine the appropriate acoustic and software parameter setting for ancient building materials in the context of sound field simulation. Next, a sound field model for standard forms of Han Chinese Buddhist temples was built and analysed. Results indicate that in traditional Buddhist temples, spatial elements—such as the height and sound absorption coefficient of temple courtyard walls, position of courtyard partition walls, and the position and height of bell towers—could significantly affect the sound pressure level (SPL), reverberation time (RT), and musical clarity (C80) of each courtyard. However, enclosure materials, such as those used in roofs, on the ground, and in windows of Han Chinese Buddhist temples, had relatively small effects on temple courtyard sound fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offices and retail spaces are among the most energy-intensive building typologies. Designing office buildings without proper consideration of their form, orientation, envelope, and other variables can lead to a considerable increase in energy usage. This research investigates how integrated usage of an atrium and courtyard can improve a building's energy performance. Thermal performance of both atrium and courtyard spaces as well as their energy-efficient integrated usage in office buildings have been investigated within the scope of this research. DesignBuilder as an interface and EnergyPlus (based on ASHRAE, the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers) as analytical software have been used to investigate the thermal behavior of an atrium and courtyard in two stages. From the results it appeared that a courtyard with 40% window-to-wall ratio and triple glazing has the best energy performance, while those with single glazing and an 80% window-to-wall ratio represent maximum energy consumption in all climates. The findings also revealed that the integrated usage of a courtyard and atrium can save energy if it is used as a courtyard type of building during summer in all climates and if it is used as an atrium in the cold months. This research is original and will contribute to the literature, as it investigates the integrated usage of an atrium and courtyard with respect to energy efficiency. This research is expected to be beneficial to professionals and academics, especially with respect to the energy-efficient use of courtyards, atria, and their integrated modes. Furthermore, the findings can contribute to the sustainability performance of the built environment through an integrated atrium-courtyard building, resulting in minimal energy consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditionally, people in the Mediterranean region knew that the temperatures in their courtyards were cooler in summer than outside temperature. This paper provides a quantitative study on the usefulness of Mediterranean courtyards as passive energy saving systems. This work is based on the creation of a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) numerical model developed using the open source Freefem++ language. In this work, first the numerical model is tested using simplified-shape courtyards which have been previously studied both physically under controlled parameters, and mathematically through numerical simulations. We also study the most appropriate depth ratio for a courtyard, based on these simplified shapes, depending on the climate. Secondly, we apply the numerical model in a real geometry, the Monte Málaga hotel. We compare the numerical results with the monitored data of the temperature in the courtyard of the hotel. The numerical model takes into account precomputed solar radiation in the walls of the courtyard, the predominant wind and buoyancy effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to investigate the effects of courtyard envelope design on the energy performance of office buildings in the hot summer–cold winter region of China. Two types of courtyard buildings were simulated with 200 energy models by changing the following variables: window–wall ratio (south, north, east, and west walls), window U-value, wall U-value, solar heat gain coefficient, and orientation. The treed Gaussian process (TGP) sensitivity analysis method was employed to quantify the contributions of parameters related to courtyard design that result in the changes of annual cooling, heating, lighting, and total energy consumption. The results show that the courtyard envelope design has a significant effect on the energy consumption in this case study. The most influential factor affecting annual cooling energy consumption and the annual total energy consumption is the orientation, which is responsible for 37% and 81%, respectively, in two layouts to annual cooling energy use. The corresponding proportion increased to 45% and 86% in terms of the total energy consumption. The most influential factor influencing annual heating energy use is the window U-value, which explained nearly 60% of the changes to the heating energy use. The effect of the solar heat gain coefficient in two kinds of layouts is as high as 82% and 79% for lighting energy use in this case study. Due to the different courtyard forms, the magnitude of the effect of the parameters on energy consumption and the main trend of the effect is slightly different. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Located on the east side of China's Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is the Western Sichuan Plateau, the courtyard adopts a passive design to withstand the harsh climate in cold areas, and its internal thermal environment has a direct impact on the productivity and activities of the residents. This paper takes a plateau village (3500 m above sea level) beside the Sichuan–Tibet line as the research area, and selects four typical local courtyard layouts and an outdoor reference point for the measurement and comparison of the thermal environment. By comparing the measured parameters inside and outside the courtyard, and the correlation analysis, it was deduced as follows. (1) In the cold winter, traditional plateau residential courtyards can create a stable internal micro-climate, but the cold resistance of the courtyards is closely related to its layout. (2) Except for wind speed, other thermal environment parameters of the courtyard are all affected by solar radiation (3) The correlation analysis of the various environmental parameters and physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) showed that the correlation coefficient between the mean radiation temperature (Tmrt) and all courtyard PET values is <0.0001, showing a significant correlation. The indicators of mean temperature radiation are mainly affected by the temperature and the wind speed; furthermore, the temperature and solar radiation are positively correlated, which confirms that the solar radiation and wind speed within the courtyard are the main factors affecting the internal thermal environment in the courtyard. (4) Feedback the courtyard layout problems through the difference in the thermal environment parameters within different courtyards, and then determine some shortcomings in the current courtyard layout design. The inferences drawn from this work will provide a scientific basis for the design, layout, and construction of courtyards in other cold plateau areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Courtyards are traditionally associated with the Middle East countries, where climate and culture have given shape to a particular type of traditional architecture. The study evaluates the environmental and social impacts of courtyards in an educational building integrated with occupant's interaction behavior. The case study of the University of Sharjah includes eight different courtyards unoccupied for many years, in different locations around the building with various proportions; the objectives were to examine and evaluate the impact of redesigning the interior spaces of the courtyards in terms of environmental and social aspects. The inductive and experimental approach were adopted in this research, where two surveys were conducted for the occupants, before and after the design applications. In addition to the use of eco-tech software for simulation. In conclusion, the results of surveys and interviews clarified the problem and offered some recommendations and simulation analysis provided recommendations and guidelines for designers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural ventilation is an energy-efficient way to provide fresh air and enhance indoor comfort levels. The wind-driven natural ventilation in courtyards has been investigated by many researchers, particularly the influence of the spatial configuration and environmental parameters on the ventilation and thermal comfort performance. However, previous research has mainly focused on the courtyard region instead of the indoor spaces surrounding it. Additionally, as a microclimate regulator, courtyards are rarely assessed in terms of the impact of vegetation, including its impact on energy consumption and thermal comfort. Evapotranspiration from vegetation can help lower air temperature in the surrounding environment and, therefore, its influence on the ventilation and thermal comfort in buildings with courtyards should be evaluated. The present study investigates the impact of vegetation on the aero-thermal comfort conditions in a courtyard and surrounding buildings in hot climates. Computational fluid dynamics was employed to evaluate the aero-thermal comfort conditions of the courtyard and surrounding buildings with different configurations of vegetation. The modeling was validated using previous works' experimental data, and good agreement was observed. Thermal comfort indices were used to assess thermal performance. The study also evaluated the cover, height and planting area of vegetation in the courtyard. The results of this study can help develop tools that can assist the addition of vegetation in courtyards to maximize their effects. Future works will focus on looking at the influence of the strategies on different designs and layouts of courtyards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An important "architectural type" in Iranian history is the Yazd courtyard house. This historic building type features a walled boundary that contains a complex pattern of open (to the sky), semi-enclosed and enclosed spaces. The planning of the courtyard in these houses has typically been interpreted as either a response to changing socio-cultural values or to local climatic conditions. Such theories about the planning of these houses are based on a series of assumptions about (i) the numbers of courtyards and rooms they contain, (ii) their unchanging nature over time and (iii) a topological pattern existing in the relationship between the courtyard and the rest of the plan. Yet, these assumptions, all of which have an impact on the socio-cultural or climatic interpretation of this famous architectural type, have never been tested. In response, this paper uses a computational and mathematical method drawn from Space Syntax to measure the spatial topology of 37 plans of Yazd's most significant courtyard houses. These houses, which are classified by the Yazd Cultural Heritage Organization, were constructed between the 11th and 20th CE centuries and are all exemplars of this type. This paper develops three hypotheses around the assumptions found in past research about the characteristic planning of the Yazd courtyard house. Then, using quantitative measures derived from plan graph analysis, the paper develops a series of longitudinal trends to test the hypotheses and explore changes that have occurred in this architectural type over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Currently, there is a lack of accurate simulation tools for the thermal performance modeling of courtyards due to their intricate thermodynamics. Machine Learning (ML) models have previously been used to predict and evaluate the structural performance of buildings as a means of solving complex mathematical problems. Nevertheless, the microclimatic conditions of the building surroundings have not been as thoroughly addressed by these methodologies. To this end, in this paper, the adaptation of ML techniques as a more comprehensive methodology to fill this research gap, covering not only the prediction of the courtyard microclimate but also the interpretation of experimental data and pattern recognition, is proposed. Accordingly, based on the climate zoning and aspect ratios of 32 monitored case studies located in the South of Spain, the Support Vector Regression (SVR) method was applied to predict the measured temperature inside the courtyard. The results provided by this strategy showed good accuracy when compared to monitored data. In particular, for two representative case studies, if the daytime slot with the highest urban overheating is considered, the relative error is almost below 0.05%. Additionally, values for statistical parameters are in good agreement with other studies in the literature, which use more computationally expensive CFD models and show more accuracy than existing commercial tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growing tourist flows, which crowd ancient city centres, have modified their liveability and threatened conservation. They have increased the need for quiet places, primarily where green parks are missing. While previous studies have highlighted the possibility of reusing hidden sites of historical buildings, it is not clear if this scheme can also be applied in other contexts, and which physical or perceptual dimensions are mainly related to the restoration of these sites. If greenery and water elements induce positive effects on people's well-being, we want to understand if the historical–artistic component can be just as important for people's restorativeness. To this end, the physical and perceptual characteristics of 20 different sites in Naples and Istanbul were investigated through objective and subjective surveys. The results show that the sound levels inside sites cannot consistently account for the perception of the restorativeness in Italy and Turkey, while some sound level differences caused by outside noise could. Moreover, soundscape, appreciation, maintenance/management, and importance/relevance were the main perceptual dimensions describing these places. The importance/relevance dimension was strongly correlated with all the components of the restorativeness, especially with the fascination. These findings are consistent between the Italian and Turkish groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]