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Biochar refers to any material that has transformed into an amorphous, graphite-like structure as a result of the thermochemical conversion of organic materials. Incorporating biochar into soil contributes to mitigating the effects of climate change through the sequestration and storage of carbon. There are numerous methods for producing biochar, including pyrolysis, gasification, hydrothermal carbonization, and flash carbonization. The choice of technology largely depends on the intended use of the biochar and the type of biomass available. However, traditional production processes often face environmental challenges, especially in developing countries. This study introduces several traditional charcoal-burning techniques used around the world and provides an overview of modern industrial biochar production methods. International organizations have developed standards for determining the quality parameters of biochar and have proposed guidelines for its application in soil. According to the available literature, biochar presents a promising opportunity for advancing sustainable agriculture and mitigating climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Global climate change has a significant impact on soil decomposition processes through the alteration of temperature and precipitation and, in connection with them, through changes in the quantity and quality of biomass production in ecosystems. The role of soil organic matter (SOM) is particularly important, as the consequences might rapidly affect soil carbon stocks. These processes have a global impact on the CO2 content of the atmosphere and a local impact on the fertility of soils. In our research, which is based on a transcontinental litter manipulation, detritus input, and removal treatment (DIRT) project, we investigated how quantitative and qualitative changes in litter inputs can affect decomposition processes and carbon storage capacity of soils in relation to SOM content. The main question of the study is how various litter treatment sites respond to additional and/or removed organic matters through assessed soil-biological parameters. The changes were monitored with some potential soil-biological indicators, such as through examining enzyme activity, CO2 emissions, and labile carbon stocks (POXC) used by organisms in performing decomposition processes. The model experiment provided a great background highlighting organic matter's importance in soil-biological processes and soil ecosystem functioning. Soil organic matter is a biological system that functions as an integrated whole. These assemblies have different properties, functions, and decomposition times. SOM is one of the main determinants of soil productivity. Our studies were carried out in a temperate deciduous oak forest on Luvisols soil. In the DIRT Project (Detritus Input and Removal Treatments), the following treatments were applied: Double Litter, Double Wood, Control, No Litter, No Root and No Input. Our objective was to compare the effect of withdrawal or doubling of organic matter on the protein pattern of the soil and the biological activity and changes in labile C (permanganate-oxidizable carbon) content in a long-term organic matter manipulation experiment. Patterns of thermostable proteins, soil dehydrogenase enzyme activity, CO2 emission, and POXC content were measured at the most biologically active soil depth of 0–5 cm after 23 years of treatment. Our results show that the enzyme activities of the litter removal treatments were significantly reduced compared to the doubling treatments, as were the values of soil respiration. The same significant difference was also detected in the C content of the soils of the treatments. Based on cluster analysis of the protein profile of the soil samples, the No Litter and No Input treatments were significantly different from the other treatments. This shows that specific organic matter is needed to enhance soil biological activity and the associated POXC content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The available literary data suggest the general applicability and benefits of the Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) in the field of microbiological identification. Due to its high reliability, MALDI-TOF might generally be the alternative to the the16s-rRNA sequence-based and serological-based methods. The essence of the technique is to map the unique protein pattern of microbes that contributes to characterizing a wide variety of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. With its application, the well-known bacterial and fungal species can be quickly identified, thus saving time in clinical diagnostics. In recent years, new protocols have appeared for directly identifying pathogenic strains from patient samples (blood, urine, feces), a major milestone in healthcare applications. On the other hand, these applications only have reliable results under certain conditions (homogeneous infection, adequate cell count, appropriate separation technique). This review aims to introduce and summarize those developments that have been enabled for routine application in the field of clinical diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon in soil is one of the most important indicators of soil fertility. Part of the carbon stored in them is returned to the atmosphere during soil respiration. Climate change and inappropriate land use can accelerate these processes. Our work aimed to determine how soil CO2 emissions change over ten years as a result of litter manipulation treatments. Plots at the Síkfőkút DIRT (Detritus Input and Removal Treatments) experimental site include doubling either leaf litter or wood, and removing all aboveground litter, all root inputs, or removing all litter inputs. With the help of this, we were able to examine not only the effects of the different organic matter intake but also the effects of the different microclimates that occur as a result of the treatments. Total soil respiration (root and microbial respiration) is a result of a persistent lack or excess of soil organic matter relative to soil moisture. Based on our studies, the increase in the intensity of root respiration on wetter soils was only half of the increase in respiration associated with decomposition activity. The sustained growth of leaf litter significantly increases soil respiration, which can be partly explained by the more favorable supply of nutrients to the decomposing organisms, and partly by the more favorable microclimatic conditions, however, these effects were only valid in the case of wetter soils. In the dry summer environment, we experienced higher CO2 emissions during litter removal treatments. In the first period between 2002 and 2004, even wetter root removal treatments showed a significantly higher CO2 emission, while in the period 2010–2012, surface litter removal treatments. The permanent removal of surface litter in the drier summer period resulted in the formation of a dense crack network, which increased the CO2 emission of these soils, which increases the soil organic carbon loss of the soil. Our study proves the advantages of mulching in terms of a more favorable microclimate of the soil surface and a balanced carbon balance of the soil–plant system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A significant portion of the increase in atmospheric CO2 enters the environment through a decrease in the level of organic matter (SOM) in soils. One of the reasons for this is the cutting of forests and the conversion of growing areas into arable land, thus changing land use. As a result, SOM today only has approx. 70–80% of the period before the spread of intensive farming. For the long-term study of the effect of varying amounts of SOM, we set up experimental plots for litter manipulation in 2000. In the course of our investigations, we studied how changing the amount of organic matter input the soil affects the CO2 emissions of the soil and its closely related biological activity after five or ten years, in addition to the continuous maintenance of the treatments. According to our assumption, after 10 years, the biological activity of the soil will decrease as a result of the removal treatment of organic matter, and the biological activity will increase as a result of the doubling. The pH value of the soil shifted in the acidic direction over 10 years as a result of the removal of organic matter, while it did not change as a result of the increase. In the first year, we could not detect any significant differences in the enzyme activity values. From our later results, we found that a drastic reduction in the amount of leaf litter has a greater effect on soil enzyme activity and soil respiration to a greater extent than an increase in litter production above natural levels. The pH of the soil was as expected, with litter withdrawal shifting the pH towards acidic over the years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dumped waste is not only a problem from an aesthetic point of view, but also has an environmental polluting effect, or can even pose a direct danger if the waste is dumped in illegal landfills in an uncontrolled manner with unknown composition. In the case of soil pollution, the assessment of the changing microbial state can be used as an indicator of initial changes, since waste as a pollutant impacts the diversity of the landfill's microbial community. The degree of change depends on the qualitative and quantitative composition of the pollutants, which can be measured through the microbial phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) pattern. The aim was a comprehensive assessment of the soil microbiological and toxicological hazards of various illegal landfill. Cluster-analysis of the average principal component revealed significant differences between the experimental sites. In comparison with the control site, the percentage of fatty acid biomarkers of Gram-positive bacteria was significantly higher in the contaminated areas, as well as the ratio of trans/cis isomerization in the case of 16:1ω7 and 18:1ω7 fatty acids. The inverse tendency was observed in the relative quantities of fatty acid biomarkers of Gram-negative bacteria compared to Actinomycetes, and in the fungal-bacterial ratio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The available literary data suggest the general applicability and benefits of different biochar products in various soil–plant–environment systems. Due to its high porosity, biochar might generally improve the physicochemical and biological properties of supplemented soils. Among the direct and indirect effects are (i) improved water-retention capacity, (ii) enhanced soil organic matter content, (iii) pH increase, (iv) better N and P availability, and (v) greater potential uptake of meso- and micronutrients. These are connected to the advantage of an enhanced soil oxygen content. The large porous surface area of biochar might indirectly protect the survival of microorganisms, while the adsorbed organic materials may improve the growth of both bacteria and fungi. On the other hand, N2-fixing Rhizobium bacteria and P-mobilizing mycorrhiza fungi might respond negatively to biochar's application. In arid circumstances with limited water and nutrient availability, a synergistic positive effect was found in biochar–microbial combined applications. Biochar seems to be a valuable soil supplement if its application is connected with optimized soil–plant–environment conditions. This work aims to give a general review of the potential benefits and drawbacks of biochar application to soil, highlighting its impacts on the soil–plant–microbe system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plums are one of the commercially important stone fruits that are available on the market in both fresh and processed form and the most sought-after products are prunes, cans, jams, and juices. Maturity, harvest, and post-harvest technologies fundamentally determine the relatively short shelf life of plums which is often threatened by Monilinia spp. Causing brown rot worldwide. The aim of the present research was to use advanced analytical techniques, such as hand-held near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and electronic tongue (e-tongue) to detect M. fructigena fungal infection on plums and quantify this fungal contamination in raw plum juices. For this purpose, plums were inoculated with fungal mycelia in different ways (control, intact, and through injury) and stored under different conditions (5 °C, and 24 °C) for eight days. The results obtained with the two instruments were analyzed with chemometric methods, such as linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and partial least squares regression (PLSR). The NIRS-based method proved successful when detectability before the appearance of visible signs of the infection was studied. E-tongue was able to detect and quantify the concentration of juice derived from plum developed with M. fructigena with RMSECV lower than 5% w/w. Overall, the two methods proved to be suitable for discriminating between the treatment groups, however, the classification accuracy was higher for samples stored at 24 °C. The research results show both NIRS and e-tongue are beneficial methods to reduce food waste by providing rapid determination of fruit quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhizobacteria-based technologies may constitute a viable option for biological fertilization and crop protection. The effects of two microbial inoculants (1) PPS: Pseudomonas protegens, P. jessenii and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia biocontrol bacterium strains and (2) TPB: Trichoderma atroviride, Pseudomonas putida, and Bacillus subtilis fungi, bacteria biocontrol, and biofertilizer combinations were examined on potato (Solanum tuberosum L. var. Demon) in three consecutive years in irrigated organic conditions. The number of tubers showing symptoms of Streptomyces sp. and Rhizoctonia sp. was recorded. The severity of symptoms was evaluated based on the damaged tuber surface. There was a large annual variability in both the symptoms caused by soil-borne pathogens, and the effect of bio-inoculants. In the first and second year, with a stronger Rhizoctonia and Streptomyces spp. incidence, the bacterial and fungal combination of TPB inoculums with both the potential plant nutrition and biocontrol ability of the strains seemed to have a better efficiency to control the diseases. This tendency was not supported in the third year, and this may be attributed to the relatively high natural precipitation. Further studies are required to investigate the agronomic benefits of these inoculants and to tailor their application to the soil microbial characteristics and weather conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil organic matter supply is mainly derived from plant litter. The early stages of litter degradation is a very dynamic process. Thus, its study is important for understanding litter degradation and the control factors of different biomes and ecosystems. In the frame of the Síkfőkút DIRT (Detritus Input and Removal Treatments) Project, the effect of organic matter treatment was studied on the rate of decomposition of organic matter by applying different kinds of organic materials (leaf and wood litter, green and rooibos tea material, and cellulose cotton wool). During long-term experiments, we intended to investigate how the different organic matter manipulations changed by the soil microbial community and how it affects the degradation of different quality organic matter in the soil. The important main purpose of the research was to investigate litter degradation and its main regulators, contributing to both current and future climate scenarios. According to our results, in the case of litter-doubling treatments, we experienced a greater loss of organic matter compared to the weight of the litter bags placed in the soil of organic matter-withdrawal treatments. Furthermore, based on our results, we found that the decomposition rate is influenced by litter quality (leaf and cellulose wool) that is to be decomposed and by the applied litter treatments depending on the time allowed for decomposition. A drier climate by slowing down the degradation processes and by increasing the proportion of recalcitrant molecules in the detritus may increase the turnover time, which may lead to an increase in soil organic carbon (SOC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]