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The United Nations (UN) Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) evaluation stresses the need to account for different types of land degradation (LD) as part of the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 15: Life on Land) and UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). For example, one of the indicators, 15.3.1 Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area, can be differentiated between different types of LD (e.g., urban development, agriculture, barren) when considering land use and land cover (LULC) change analysis. This study demonstrates that it is important to consider not only the overall anthropogenic LD status and trend over time, but also the type of LD to confirm LDN. This study's innovation is that it leverages remote-sensing-based LULC change analysis to evaluate LDN by different types of LD using the state of Ohio (OH) as a case study. Almost 67% of land in OH experienced anthropogenic LD primarily due to agriculture (81%). All six soil orders were subject to various degrees of anthropogenic LD: Mollisols (88%), Alfisols (70%), Histosols (58%), Entisols (55%), Inceptisols (43%), and Ultisols (22%). All land developments in OH can be linked to damages from LD, with 10,116.3 km2 developed, resulting in midpoint losses of 1.4 × 1011 kg of total soil carbon (TSC) and a midpoint social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2) of $24B (where B = billion = 109, USD). Overall, the anthropogenic LD trend between 2001 and 2016 indicated LDN, however, during the same time, there was a six percent increase in developed area (577.6 km2), which represents a consumptive land conversion that likely caused the midpoint loss of 8.4 × 109 kg of TSC and a corresponding midpoint of $1.4B in SC-CO2. New developments occurred adjacent to current urban areas, near the capital city of Columbus, and other cities (e.g., Dayton, Cleveland). Developments negated OH's overall LDN because of multiple types of damages: soil C loss, associated "realized" soil C social costs (SC-CO2), and loss of soil C sequestration potential. The state of OH has very limited potential land (1.2% of the total state area) for nature-based solutions (NBS) to compensate for the damages, which extend beyond the state's boundaries because of the greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of soil quality (SQ) is defined as the soil's capacity to function, which is commonly assessed at the field scale. Soil quality is composed of inherent (soil suitability) and dynamic (soil health, SH) SQ, which can also be analyzed using geospatial tools as a SQ continuum (SQC). This study proposes an innovative spatiotemporal analysis of SQ degradation and emissions from land developments using the state of Iowa (IA) in the United States of America (USA) as a case study. The SQ degradation was linked to anthropogenic soil (SD) and land degradation (LD) in the state. More than 88% of land in IA experienced anthropogenic LD primarily due to agriculture (93%). All six soil orders were subject to various degrees of anthropogenic LD: Entisols (75%), Inceptisols (94%), Histosols (59%), Alfisols (79%), Mollisols (93%), and Vertisols (98%). Soil and LD have primarily increased between 2001 and 2016. In addition to agricultural LD, there was also SD/LD caused by an increase in developments often through urbanization. All land developments in IA can be linked to damages to SQ, with 8385.9 km2 of developed area, causing midpoint total soil carbon (TSC) losses of 1.7 × 1011 kg of C and an associated midpoint of social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2) of $28.8B (where B = billion = 109, USD). More recently developed land area (398.5 km2) between 2001 and 2016 likely caused the midpoint loss of 8.0 × 109 kg of C and a corresponding midpoint of $1.3B in SC-CO2. New developments are often located near urban areas, for example, near the capital city of Des Moines, and other cities (Sioux City, Dubuque). Results of this study reveal several different kinds of SQ damage from developments: loss of potential for future C sequestration in soils, soil C loss, and "realized" soil C social costs (SC-CO2). The state of IA has very limited potential land (2.0% of the total state area) for nature-based solutions (NBS) to compensate for SD and LD. The results of this study can be used to support pending soil health-related legislation in IA and monitoring towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) developed by the United Nations (UN) by providing a landscape-level perspective on LD to focus field-level initiatives to reduce soil loss and improve SQ. Future technological innovations will provide higher spatial and temporal remote sensing data that can be fused with field-level direct sensing to track SH and SQ changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil makes important contributions to the United Nations (UN) Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) concept and targets; however, currently, soil is not integrated into measurable information (e.g., indicators, metrics) to monitor land degradation (LD) patterns and trends. This study examines the role of soil in LDN in the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), and UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 15: Life on Land). This study is specifically focused on the LDN and biodiversity loss as they relate to an indicator 15.3.1 Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area. Tracking of LD status can be improved by using detailed soils databases combined with satellite-derived land cover maps. This study has applied these newly improved methods to quantify and map the anthropogenic LD status and trends in the contiguous United States of America (USA), as well as to identify potential land areas for nature-based solutions (NBS) to compensate for LD. Anthropogenic LD in 2016 in the contiguous USA affected over two million square kilometers, about one-third of the country's total area, with high variability by state. Between 2001 and 2016, LD in the USA showed an overall increase of 1.5%, with some states exhibiting increases in degraded land while other states had overall improvements to their land. All ten soil orders present in the contiguous USA have been anthropogenically degraded, with Mollisols, Alfisols, and Vertisols having the highest LD levels. Compensating for LD requires a variety of strategies and measures (e.g., NBS), which often require additional land. In 2016, the potential land area for NBS was over two million square kilometers, an area approximately equal to that of degraded land. Some of the states that have high proportions of land available for potential NBS are dominated by soils (Aridisols) typical of deserts and therefore may have less promise for NBS. The variability of LD needs to be evaluated at finer spatial scales for realistic LDN analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land, including soil resources, makes important contributions to the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, there are challenges in identifying land/soil measurable information (e.g., indicators, metrics, etc.) to monitor the progress toward achieving these goals. This study examines the role of land/soil in selected SDGs (SDG 2: Zero Hunger; SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production; SDG 13: Climate Action; SDG 15: Life on Land) and provides practical examples on how to use geospatial analysis to track relevant qualitative and quantitative land/soil data using the contiguous United States of America (USA) as a case study. The innovative aspect of this study leverages geospatial technologies to track the intersection of land use/land cover (LULC) change and soil resources to quantify development trends within the overall land cover matrix to evaluate if these trends are sustainable. Classified land cover data derived from satellite-based remote sensing were used to identify the extent of developed areas in 2016 and the change in development areas since 2011. Most land development through time in the USA has caused losses (area loss of nearly 355,600 km2, with projected midpoint losses of about 5.7 × 1012 kg total soil carbon (TSC) and about $969B (where B = billion = 109, USD) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2). All ten soil orders present in the contiguous USA experienced losses from developments, which represents a loss for both biodiversity and soil diversity (pedodiversity). The contiguous USA experienced an increase in land/soil consumption between 2001 and 2016 at the expense of deciduous forest (−3.1%), evergreen forest (−3.0%), emergent herbaceous wetlands (−0.6%), and hay/pasture (−7.9%). These "new" land developments (24,292.2 km2) caused a complete projected midpoint loss of 4.0 × 1011 kg TSC, equivalent to $76.1B SC-CO2. States with the largest developed areas and the highest TSC losses with associated SC-CO2 were Texas and Florida. The proposed methodology used in this study can be applied worldwide, at various spatial scales, to help monitor SDGs over time. With improved tools to monitor SDGs, progress on these SDGs may require linking the SDGs to existing or future international and national legal frameworks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The concept of soil health is increasingly being used as an indicator for sustainable soil management and even includes legislative actions. Current applications of soil health often lack geospatial and monetary analyses of damages (e.g., land development), which can degrade soil health through loss of carbon (C) and productive soils. This study aims to evaluate the damages to soil health (e.g., soil C, the primary soil health indicator) attributed to land developments within the state of Illinois (IL) in the United States of America (USA). All land developments in IL can be associated with damages to soil health, with 13,361.0 km2 developed, resulting in midpoint losses of 2.5 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) and a midpoint social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2) of $41.8B (where B = billion = 109, USD). More recently developed land area (721.8 km2) between 2001 and 2016 likely caused the midpoint loss of 1.6 × 1010 kg of TSC and a corresponding midpoint of $2.7B in SC-CO2. New developments occurred adjacent to current urban areas near the capital cities of Springfield, Chicago, and St. Louis (the border city between the states of Missouri and IL). Results of this study reveal several types of damage to soil health from developments: soil C loss, associated "realized" soil C social costs (SC-CO2), and loss of soil C sequestration potential from developments. The innovation of this study has several aspects. Geospatial analysis of land cover combined with corresponding soil types can identify changes in the soil health continuum at the landscape level. Because soil C is a primary soil health indicator, land conversions caused by developments reduce soil health and the availability of productive soils for agriculture, forestry, and C sequestration. Current IL soil health legislation can benefit from this landscape level data on soil C loss with GHG emissions and associated SC-CO2 costs by providing insight into the soil health continuum and its dynamics. These techniques and data can also be used to expand IL's GHG emissions reduction efforts from being solely focused on the energy sector to include soil-based emissions from developments. Current soil health legislation does not recognize that soil's health is harmed by disturbance from land developments and that this disturbance results in GHG emissions. Soil health programs could be broadened to encourage less disturbance of soil types that release high levels of GHG and set binding targets based on losses in the soil health continuum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Loss and damage (L&D) from climate change result from past and current greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Current definitions of L&D exclude GHG emissions even though they represent L&D to human beings and the environment. This study's objective was to identify and quantify the L&D from GHG emissions associated with land developments using the state of Florida (FL) in the United States of America (USA) as a case study. All land developments in FL caused various L&D (20,249.6 km2, midpoint 3.0 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) losses with midpoint $50.3B (where B = billion = 109, USD) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2), while "new" land developments (1703.7 km2) in the period from 2001 to 2016 caused a complete loss of midpoint 2.8 × 1010 kg of TSC resulting in midpoint $4.5B SC-CO2. These emissions are currently not accounted for in FL's total carbon footprint (CF). Climate-change-related damages in FL include permanent losses (e.g., land losses), with 47 out of 67 FL's counties potentially affected by the projected sea-level rise and repairable damages (e.g., destruction from hurricanes). Based on the fixed social cost of carbon (C), there appears to be a disconnect between the value attributed to soil-based emissions and the actual market-driven losses from climate-change-associated costs. The social cost of C could be scaled based on the vulnerability of a particular community and the market-based cost of L&D mitigation. Programs for compensation on the international level should be carefully designed to help people who have suffered climate-related L&D, without creating reverse climate change adaptation (RCCA), where compensation causes people to remain in areas that are vulnerable to climate-related L&D. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The question of liability (responsibility) for loss and damage (L&D) associated with climate change often ignores the liability for L&D from greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which are the source of climate change-related impacts. New York State (NYS) recognizes its responsibility regarding climate change as documented in the NYS Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act (CLCPA) (Senate Bill S6599), which put forward the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from all anthropogenic sources 100% over 1990 levels by the year 2050, with an incremental target of at least a 40% reduction in climate pollution by the year 2030. The current NYS carbon footprint (CF) does not include soil-based GHG emissions from land developments, preventing the state from reaching its net-zero emission goals. The current study addresses this shortcoming by quantifying the "realized" social costs of CO2 (SC-CO2) emissions for NYS from all land developments (12,037.5 km2, midpoint 1.7 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) losses with midpoint $28.5B (where B = billion = 109, USD)) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2) and "new" land developments (485.2 km2) in the period from 2001 to 2016, which caused a complete loss of midpoint 6.6 × 109 kg of TSC resulting in midpoint $1.1B SC-CO2. All NYS's counties experienced land conversions, with most of the developments, TSC losses, and SC-CO2 occurred near the existing urban areas of New York City (NYC), Long Island, and Albany. Land conversion to developments creates additional liability by the loss of future GHG sequestration potential in developed areas. In addition, there is a substantial future liability in NYS from climate change impacts, such as the projected sea-level rises will impact 17 of NY's 62 counties, which will cause high costs of adaptation. Incorporation of land use/land cover change (LULCC) analysis can help better quantify the CF and identify ways to reduce GHG emissions and the associated liabilities and compensations to help achieve some of the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many climate change "solution" plans include net-zero goals, which involve balancing the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) with their removal. Achieving net-zero goals is particularly problematic for soils because they are often excluded from GHG inventories and reduction plans. For example, Maryland's Climate Solutions Now Act (Senate Bill 528) put forward the goal of lowering emissions of GHG to 60% under 2006 quantities by 2031 and with a target of net-zero emissions by 2045. To achieve these goals, the state of Maryland (MD) needs to quantify GHG emissions from various sources contributing to the state's total emissions footprint (EF). Soils are currently excluded from MD's GHG assessments, which raises a question about how the soil impacts the net-zero goal. This study examines the challenges in meeting net-zero goals using an example of carbon dioxide (CO2) as one of the GHG types (net-zero CO2 emissions). The current study quantified the "realized" social costs of CO2 (SC-CO2) emissions for MD from new land developments in the period from 2001 to 2016 which caused a complete loss of 2.2 × 109 kg of total soil carbon (TSC) resulting in $383.8M (where M = million, USD = US dollars). All MD's counties experienced land developments with various emissions and SC-CO2 monetary values. Most of the developments, TSC losses, and SC-CO2 occurred near the existing urban areas of Annapolis and Baltimore City. These emissions need to be accounted for in MD's GHG emissions reduction plans to achieve a net-zero target. Soils of MD are limited in recarbonization capacity because 64% of the state area is occupied by highly leached Ultisols. Soil recarbonization potential is further reduced by urbanization with Prince George's, Montgomery, and Frederick counties experiencing the highest increases in developed areas. In addition, projected sea-level rises will impact 17 of MD's 23 counties. These losses will generate additional social costs because of migration, costs of relocation, and damages to infrastructure. The state of MD has a high proportion of private land ownership (92.4%) and low proportion of public lands, which will limit opportunities for relocation within the state. Net-zero targets are important but meeting these targets without specific and integrative approaches depending on the source and type of emissions may result in failure. These approaches should also focus on the social costs of emissions, which raises the need for a new concept of integrating net-zero emissions and social costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflicts of interest (COI) are an integral part of human society, including their influence on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate change. Individuals or entities often have multiple interests ranging from financial benefits to reducing climate change-related risks, where choosing one interest may negatively impact other interests and societal welfare. These types of COI require specific management strategies. This study examines COI from land-use decisions as an intersection of different perspectives on land use (e.g., land conservation versus land development), which can have various consequences regarding GHG emissions. This study uses the state of New Jersey (NJ) in the United States of America (USA) as a case study to demonstrate COI related to soil-based GHG emissions from land conversions between 2001 and 2016 which caused $722.2M (where M = million = 106) worth of "realized" social costs of carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) emissions. These emissions are currently not accounted for in NJ's total carbon footprint (CF), which can negatively impact the state's ability to reach its carbon reduction goals. The state of NJ Statutes Annotated 26:2C-37 (2007): Global Warming Response Act (GWRA) (updated in 2019) set a statewide goal of reducing GHG emissions to 80 percent below 2006 levels by 2050. Remote sensing and soil data analysis allow temporal and quantitative assessment of the contribution of land cover conversions to NJ's CF by soil carbon type, soil type, land cover type, and administrative units (state, counties), which helps document past, and estimate future related GHG emissions using a land cover change scenario to calculate the amount of GHG emissions if an area of land was to be developed. Decisions related to future land conversions involve potential COI within and outside state administrative structures, which could be managed by a conflict-of-interest policy. The site and time-specific disclosures of GHG emissions from land conversions can help governments manage these COI to mitigate climate change impacts and costs by assigning financial responsibility for specific CF contributions. Projected sea-level rise will impact 16 out of 21 NJ's counties and it will likely reach coastal areas with densely populated urban areas throughout NJ. Low proportion of available public land limits opportunities for relocation. Increased climate-change-related damages in NJ and elsewhere will increase the number of climate litigation cases to alleviate costs associated with climate change. This litigation will further highlight the importance and intensity of different COI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from landcover conversions contribute to the total carbon (C) footprint (CF), which is the sum of GHG emissions from various sources and events expressed as carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent. Soil-based emissions from land conversions are often excluded from the total CF, which can lead to underreporting the CF. This study uses the state of Connecticut (CT) as a case study to demonstrate the importance of soil-based emissions from land cover conversions to the state's CF. The state of CT Public Act 08-98 (2008): Global Warming Solutions Act (GWSA) set a statutory requirement to cut GHG emissions 10 percent below 1990 levels by 2020 and 80 percent below 2001 levels by 2050 without considering soil-based emissions from land conversions. This omission results in underestimates of past and current emissions related to CT's CF. In addition, not accounting for soil-based emissions from land conversions may increase the future size of CT's CF. Remote sensing and soil data analysis provide an opportunity for rapid, quantitative, and temporal assessment of the contribution of land cover conversions to CT's CF by soil type, land cover type, and administrative units (counties). Results are reported for soil organic carbon (SOC), soil inorganic carbon (SIC), and total soil carbon (TSC) based on C contents and monetary values of social costs of carbon. The state of CT experienced soil-based emissions from land cover conversions from 2001 to 2016 with $388.1M (where $ = USD, M = million = 106) worth of "realized" social costs of carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) emissions which should be accounted for in CT's total CF. The current methodology could be used to optimize future land conversions to minimize the amount of soil GHG emissions by considering the soil C resources in different development scenarios. With an extensive, densely populated coastal area, CT will be directly affected by rising sea levels and other climate change impacts. Future research can focus on owner-specific CF contributions to address the responsibility for costs of GHG emissions as well as limiting the CF impact of land conversions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interest in a subject matter is a powerful motivation in education. Prior knowledge of students' interests can be helpful in teaching the concept of ecosystem services (ES) and disservices (ED), which is increasingly being used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, including soil science. Study objectives were to evaluate prior students' soil science-related interests and use them to expand the learning context of a laboratory exercise on soil reaction (pH) with ES/ED in an online introductory soil science course (FNR 2040: Soil Information Systems) taught at Clemson University. Students from multiple fields of study (environmental and natural resources, forestry, and wildlife biology) completed the laboratory exercise in Fall 2021. This exercise on soil regulating and provisioning ES/ED included a sequence of reusable learning objects (RLOs), which are self-contained online modules frequently used for e-learning. Laboratory activities included calculating the liming replacement cost of soil inorganic carbon (SIC) and avoided social cost of carbon (SC-CO2) from soil inorganic carbon (SIC) stocks in the assigned soil. The laboratory exercise was effective in increasing the familiarity with the concept of ES/ED (+39.4 increase in "extremely familiar" category) and the concept of SIC (+44.7 increase in "moderately familiar" category). The graded online quiz consisted of 9 questions and was taken by 55 students with an average score of 7.0 (out of 9). A post-assessment survey found that the laboratory was an effective way to learn about soil pH, SIC, and their ES/ED. Detailed student comments showed learning enjoyment (e.g., calculations, good experience), the value of multimedia (e.g., video, PowerPoint), the learning flexibility (e.g., separate parts), content applicability (e.g., economic values of services), and constructive criticism (e.g., clearer instructions, lots of information). A word cloud based on comments by the students about their soil ES laboratory exercise experience indicated the most common words submitted by students to describe their experience, such as "soil", "calculations", "enjoyed", "learning", and "values", among others. Applied recommendations are proposed to develop future exercises based on the alignment of students' interests, STEM subject matter, and ES/ED applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Integration of land cover change with soil information is important for valuation of soil carbon (C) regulating ecosystem services (ES) and disservices (ED) and for site-specific land management. The objective of this study was to assess the change in value of regulating ES from soil organic carbon (SOC), soil inorganic carbon (SIC), and total soil carbon (TSC) stocks, based on the concept of the avoided social cost of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for the state of South Carolina (SC) in the United States of America (U.S.A.) by soil order (Soil Taxonomy), land cover, and land cover change (National Land Cover Database, NLCD) using information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) and Soil Survey Geographic Database (SSURGO) databases. Classified land cover data for 2001 and 2016 were downloaded from the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC) website. The total estimated monetary mid-point value for TSC in the state of South Carolina was $124.42B (i.e., $124.42 billion U.S. dollars, where B = billion = 109) with the following monetary distribution in 2016 and percent change in value between 2001 and 2016: barren land ($259.7M, -9%) (i.e., $259.7 million U.S. dollars, where M = million = 106), woody wetlands ($33.8B, -1%), shrub/scrub ($3.9B, +9%), mixed forest ($6.9B, +5%), deciduous forest ($10.6B, -7%), herbaceous ($4.8B, -5%), evergreen forest ($28.6B, +1%), emergent herbaceous wetlands ($6.9B, -3%), hay/pasture ($7.3B, -10%), cultivated crops ($9.9B, 0%), developed, open space ($7.0B, +5%), developed, medium intensity ($978M, +46%), developed, low intensity ($2.9B, +15%), and developed, high intensity ($318M, +39%). The percent change in monetary values was different from percent change in areas because different soil orders have different TSC contents. The percent changes (between 2001 and 2016) both in areas and monetary values varied by soil order and land cover with $1.1B in likely "realized" social cost of C mostly associated with Ultisols ($658.8M). The Midlands region of the state experienced the highest gains in the "high disturbance" classes and corresponding SC-CO2 with over $421M for TSC, $354.6M for SOC, and $66.4M for SIC. Among counties, Horry County ranked first with over $142.2M in SC-CO2 for TSC, followed by Lexington ($103.7M), Richland ($95.3M), Greenville ($81.4M), York ($77.5M), Charleston ($70.7M), Beaufort ($64.1M), Berkeley ($50.9M), Spartanburg ($50.0M), and Aiken ($43.0M) counties. Spatial and temporal analyses of land cover can identify critical locations of soil carbon regulating ecosystem services at risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest measurements using conventional methods may not capture all the important information required to properly characterize forest structure. The objective of this study was to develop a low-cost alternative method for forest inventory measurements and characterization of forest structure using handheld LiDAR technology. Three-dimensional (3D) maps of trees were obtained using an iPad Pro with a LiDAR sensor. Freely-available software programs, including 3D Forest Software and CloudCompare software, were used to determine tree diameter at breast height (DBH) and distance between trees. The 3D point cloud data obtained from the iPad Pro LiDAR sensor was able to estimate tree DBH accurately, with a residual error of 2.4 cm in an urban forest stand and 1.9 cm in an actively managed experimental forest stand. Distances between trees also were accurately estimated, with mean residual errors of 0.21 m for urban forest, and 0.38 m for managed forest stand. This study demonstrates that it is possible to use a low-cost consumer tablet with a LiDAR sensor to accurately measure certain forest attributes, which could enable the crowdsourcing of urban and other forest tree DBH and density data because of its integration into existing Apple devices and ease of use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The color of petals of flowering plants is often determined by comparing one or more of the petals to various Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) Colour Chart cards until a color match is found. However, these cards are susceptible to fading with age and can also provide inaccurate results if lighting is not optimal. The cards also rely on the human eye to determine a match, which introduces the possibility of human error. The objectives of this study were to determine camellia (Camellia japonica L.) petal color using the RHS Colour Chart, to determine camellia petal color with the Nix™ Pro color sensor (Nix Sensor Ltd., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada), and to compare these measurements using different color measuring approaches. Color measurements of camellia flower petals using the Nix™ Pro color sensor were compared to published CIELAB values from the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) Colour Chart. Forty-five petal color samples were collected from fifteen different camellia shrubs. The RHS Colour Chart was used for each of the petals, and the RHS identifications were recorded. Measurements using the Nix™ Pro color sensor were compared to RHS-provided CIELAB values that corresponded with the recorded identification for each petal to determine accuracy. The Nix™ Pro color sensor's measurements were also compared to a mean of the values, multiple measurements on the same petal location, and multiple measurements on different petal locations to determine precision and variation. The Nix™ Pro color sensor's readings were precise in petal color determination and provided more nuanced differences between petals of the same plant and plants of the same variety in each of the color categories. The RHS Colour Chart provided an accurate depiction of most petals, but it was difficult to use with petals that had wide color variation over the entire petal. The Nix™ Pro color sensor's measurements appeared to have more variation in the b* color space. However, overall, the Nix™ Pro color sensor L*, a*, and b* values were highly correlated with the provided RHS values (p < 0.01), showing that the sensor can be used as an accurate and precise substitute for the RHS Colour Chart. The Nix™ Pro color sensor can be a useful, cost-effective tool to measure the petal color of camellia and other flowering plants and rectifies many of the problems associated with the RHS Colour Chart. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of polyacrylamide (PAM) molecular weights (MWs) on the PAM adsorption capacities and PAM-mediated flocculation of kaolinite suspensions were investigated using a series of nonionic PAMs with different MWs. Adsorption tests using aqueous kaolinite suspensions dosed with a series of PAMs with MWs of 1.5 kg/mol, 10 kg/mol, 0.6-1 Mg/mol, 5-6 Mg/mol, and 18 Mg/mol (referred to as 1.5 K, 10 K, 0.6-1 M, 5-6 M, and 18 M PAMs) indicated that the adsorption capacity of the kaolinite for PAM increased with increasing MW. However, the capacity for 18 M PAM was 20 times smaller than those for the 0.6-1 M and 5-6 M PAMs, although it has the highest MW. In steady-shear viscosity tests, a 1 g/L stock solution of 18 PAM was found to cause polymeric chain entanglements, which reduced the adsorption capacity. The 0.6-1 M and 5-6 M PAMs were further used in flocculation tests, in order to investigate the effect of PAM MW on the flocculation capability. The 5-6 M PAM was found to have higher flocculation capabilities than 0.6-1 M PAM; 5-6 M PAM was more subject to nonequilibrium flocculation, resulting in the development of unstable, stretched polymeric structures on solid surfaces and increasing particle-particle bridging and flocculation. Higher-MW PAMs are more effective flocculation agents, because of their higher adsorption capacities and flocculation capabilities. However, an extremely high-MW PAM, such as 18 M PAM, decreases adsorption/flocculation, and the preparation and handling of working solutions become difficult, because of polymeric chain entanglements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The framework of ecosystem services (ES) and disservices (ED) has increasingly been used in various science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, including soil science. The objectives of this study were to use ES/ED concepts to extend and test an existing lecture and laboratory exercise on soil organic carbon (SOC) in an online introductory soil science course (FNR 2040: Soil Information Systems) taught to Clemson University students from various STEM disciplines (forestry, wildlife biology, and environmental and natural resources) in Fall 2020. The laboratory exercise was extended with a series of reusable learning objects (RLOs), which are self-contained digital modules commonly utilized in e-learning. The laboratory exercise consisted of identifying ES and calculating the avoided social cost of carbon (SC-CO2) from soil organic carbon stocks in the assigned soil's topsoil horizon. The laboratory exercise effectively increased student familiarity with ES/ED as indicated by the post-assessment survey with a +24.4% increase in the moderately familiar category and a +36.1% increase in the extremely familiar category. The graded online quiz consisted of ten questions and was taken by 51 students with an average score of 8.7 (out of 10). A post-assessment survey indicated that most of the students found that the laboratory was an effective way to learn about ES/ED with examples from soil science. Detailed students' comments indicated enjoyment of learning (e.g., calculations, applying new knowledge), the value of multimedia (e.g., PowerPoint, video), the flexibility of learning (e.g., different parts in the laboratory), the applicability of content (e.g., real-world examples), and criticism (e.g., tedious calculations). A word cloud based on students' comments about their experience with the laboratory exercise on soil ES indicated the most common words used by students to describe their experience, such as "soil services", "learning", "enjoyed", and "ecosystems", among others. Incorporating ES/ED into an undergraduate STEM course enabled students to connect ES/ED provided by soil with the societal systems reliant on the soil resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many soil regulating ecosystem services (ES) are linked to Earth's atmosphere, but associated monetary values often are unknown or difficult to quantify. Atmospheric deposition of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) are abiotic flows (wet, dry, and total) from the atmosphere to land surfaces, which potentially can become available to sequester carbon (C) as soil inorganic carbon (SIC). However, these processes typically have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. The primary objective of this study was to demonstrate an approach for valuing non-constrained potential SIC sequestration from atmospheric Ca2+ and Mg2+ deposition based on the concept of the avoided social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2). Maximum monetary values associated with the non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were compiled for the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, land resource region (LRR), state, and region using available deposition data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3). For the entire contiguous U.S., an average annual monetary value for the non-constrained potential SIC sequestration due to atmospheric Ca2+ and Mg2+ deposition was $135M (i.e., $135 million U.S. dollars, where M = million = 106). Mollisols, Alfisols, and Entisols were soil orders with the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration. When normalized by land area, however, Vertisols had the highest average annual monetary values followed by Alfisols and Mollisols for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration. From a more agricultural perspective, the LRRs with the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were the Western Range and Irrigated Region (D), the Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region (M), and the Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region (H). When normalized by area, the LRRS with the highest average annual monetary values were the Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region (I) and the Florida Subtropical Fruit, Truck Crop and Range Region (U). Among the U.S. states, the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were Texas, Kansas, and New Mexico, but when normalized by area the highest values by state were Kansas, Iowa, and Texas. Geographical regions in the contiguous U.S. with the highest average annual monetary values for non-constrained potential SIC sequestration were the South Central, Midwest, and West; when normalized by area, the highest values by region were South Central, Midwest, and Northern Plains. Constraints on maximum monetary values, based on physical, chemical, biological, economic, social, and political limitations, need to be considered and quantified to obtain more precise and accurate accounting of the ES associated with SIC sequestration due to atmospheric Ca2+ and Mg2+ deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total soil carbon (TSC) is a composite (total) stock, which is the sum of soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil inorganic carbon (SIC). Total soil carbon, and its individual two components, are all important criteria for assessing ecosytems services (ES) and for achieving United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The objective of this study was to assess the value of TSC stocks, based on the concept of the avoided social cost of carbon dioxide emissions, for the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, soil depth (0–20, 20–100, 100–200 cm), land resource region (LRR), state, and region using information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database. The total calculated monetary value for TSC storage in the contiguous U.S. was between $8.13T (i.e., $8.13 trillion U.S. dollars, where T = trillion = 1012) and $37.5T, with a midpoint value of $21.1T. Soil orders with the highest TSC storage midpoint values were Mollisols ($7.78T) and Aridisols ($2.49T). Based on area, however, the soil orders with highest midpoint TSC values were Histosols ($21.95 m−2) and Vertisols ($5.84 m−2). Soil depth was important, with the highest values of TSC storage being found in the interval 20–100 cm ($9.87T—total midpoint value, and $1.34 m−2—midpoint area density). The soil depth interval 0–20 cm had the lowest TSC storage ($4.30T) and lowest area-density ($0.58 m−2) value, which exemplifies the prominence of TSC in the deeper subsurface layers of soil. The LRRs with the highest midpoint TSC storage values were: M—Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region ($2.82T) and D—Western Range and Irrigated Region ($2.64T), whereas on an area basis the LRRs with the highest values were I—Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region ($6.90 m−2) and J—Southwestern Prairies Cotton and Forage Region ($6.38 m−2). Among the U.S. states, the highest midpoint TSC storage values were Texas ($4.03T) and Minnesota ($1.29T), while based on area this order was reversed (i.e., Minnesota: $6.16 m−2; Texas: $6.10 m−2). Comprehensive assessment of regulating ES requires TSC, which is an important measure in achieving the UN SDGs. Despite the known shortcomings of soil databases, such as their static nature and the wide ranges of uncertainty reported for various soil properties, they provide the most comprehensive information available at this time for making systematic assessments of ecosystem services at large spatial scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soil organic carbon (SOC) generates several ecosystem services (ES), including a regulating service by sequestering carbon (C) as SOC. This ES can be valued based on the avoided social cost of carbon (SC-CO2) from the long-term damage resulting from emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). The objective of this study was to assess the value of SOC stocks, based on the avoided SC-CO2 ($42 per metric ton of CO2 in 2007 U.S. dollars), in the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, soil depth (0–20, 20–100, 100–200 cm), land resource region (LRR), state, and region using information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database. The total calculated monetary value for SOC storage in the contiguous U.S. was between $4.64T (i.e., $4.64 trillion U.S. dollars, where T = trillion = 1012) and $23.1T, with a midpoint value of $12.7T. Soil orders with the highest midpoint SOC storage values were 1): Mollisols ($4.21T), 2) Histosols ($2.31T), and 3) Alfisols ($1.48T). The midpoint values of SOC normalized by area within soil order boundaries were ranked: 1) Histosols ($21.58 m−2), 2) Vertisols ($2.26 m−2), and 3) Mollisols ($2.08 m−2). The soil depth interval with the highest midpoint values of SOC storage and content was 20–100 cm ($6.18T and $0.84 m−2, respectively), while the depth interval 100–200 cm had the lowest midpoint values of SOC storage ($2.88T) and content ($0.39 m−2). The depth trends exemplify the prominence of SOC in the upper portions of soil. The LRRs with the highest midpoint SOC storage values were: 1) M – Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region ($1.8T), 2) T – Atlantic and Gulf Coast Lowland Forest and Crop Region ($1.26T), and 3) K – Northern Lake States Forest and Forage Region ($1.16T). The midpoint values of SOC normalized by area within LRR boundaries were ranked: 1) U – Florida Subtropical Fruit, Truck Crop, and Range Region ($6.10 m−2), 2) T – Atlantic and Gulf Coast Lowland Forest and Crop Region ($5.44 m−2), and 3) K – Northern Lake States Forest and Forage Region ($3.88 m−2). States with the highest midpoint values of SOC storage were: 1) Texas ($1.08T), 2) Minnesota ($834B) (i.e., $834 billion U.S. dollars, where B = billion = 109), and 3) Florida ($742B). Midpoint values of SOC normalized by area within state boundaries were ranked: 1) Florida ($5.44 m−2), 2) Delaware ($4.10 m−2), and 3) Minnesota ($3.99 m−2). Regions with the highest midpoint values of SOC storage were: 1) Midwest ($3.17T), 2) Southeast ($2.44T), and 3) Northern Plains ($2.35T). Midpoint values of SOC normalized by area within region boundaries were ranked: 1) Midwest ($2.73 m−2), 2) Southeast ($2.31 m−2), and 3) East ($1.82 m−2). The reported values and trends demonstrate the need for policies with regards to SOC management, which requires incentives within administrative boundaries but informed by the geographic distribution of SOC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon sequestered as soil inorganic carbon (SIC) provides a regulating ecosystem service, which can be assigned a monetary value based on the avoided social cost of carbon (SC-CO2). By definition, the SC-CO2 is a measure, in dollars, of the long-term damage resulting from the emission of a metric ton of carbon dioxide (CO2). Therefore, this dollar figure also represents the value of damages avoided due to an equivalent reduction or sequestration of CO2. The objective of this study was to assess the value of SIC stocks in the contiguous United States (U.S.) by soil order, soil depth (0–20, 20–100, 100–200 cm), land resource region (LRR), state, and region using information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) database together with a reported SC-CO2 of $42 (U.S. dollars). With this approach, the calculated monetary value for total SIC storage in the contiguous U.S. was between $3.48T (i.e., $3.48 trillion U.S. dollars, where T = trillion = 1012) and $14.4T, with a midpoint value of $8.34T. Soil orders with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) Mollisols ($3.57T), 2) Aridisols ($1.99T), and 3) Alfisols ($841B) (i.e., $841B is 841 billion U.S. dollars, where B = billion = 109). When normalized by land area, the soil orders with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) Vertisols ($3.57 m−2), 2) Aridisols ($2.45 m−2), and 3) Mollisols ($1.77 m−2). Most of the SIC value was associated with the 100–200 cm depth interval, with a midpoint value of $4T and an area-normalized value of $0.54 m−2. The LRRs with the highest (midpoint) values of SIC storage were: 1) D—Western Range and Irrigated Region ($1.77T), 2) H—Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region ($1.49T), and 3) M—Central Feed Grains and Livestock Region ($1.02T). When normalized by land area, the LRRs were ranked: 1) I—Southwest Plateaus and Plains Range and Cotton Region ($5.36 m−2), 2) J—Southwestern Prairies Cotton and Forage Region ($4.56 m−2), and 3) H—Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region ($2.56 m−2). States with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) Texas ($2.96T), 2) New Mexico ($572B), and 3) Montana ($524B). When normalized by land area, the states were ranked: 1) Texas ($4.47 m−2), 2) Utah ($2.77 m−2), and 3) Minnesota ($2.17 m−2). Lastly, regions with the highest (midpoint) values for SIC storage were: 1) South Central ($3.13T), 2) West ($1.98T), and 3) Northern Plains ($1.62T). When normalized by land area, the regions were ranked: 1) South Central ($2.90 m−2), 2) Midwest ($1.32 m−2), and 3) West ($1.02 m−2). Results from this study demonstrate a new approach for assigning monetary values to SIC stocks at various scales based on their role in providing ecosystem services for climate regulation and carbon sequestration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecosystem services (ES) often rely on biogeochemical cycles, but values associated with abiotic services are often ignored or underestimated. Ecosystem services from atmospheric magnesium (Mg2+) deposition are abiotic flows (wet, dry, and total), which can be considered a source of naturally-occurring fertilizer and liming material, have not been included in economic valuations of ecosystem services. Market-based valuation of these atmospheric ecosystem service flows can partially address this negative externality. This study assessed the value of wet, dry, and total atmospheric magnesium deposition flows in the contiguous United States (USA) within boundary-based administrative accounts (e.g., state, region) based on data from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3), and the market price of human-derived material (agricultural dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2). The total supporting ecosystem value of atmospheric magnesium deposition flows was $46.7M (i.e., 46.7 million U.S. dollars) ($18.5M wet + $28.2M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $12.90 per U.S. ton of agricultural dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). The atmosphere is a common-pool resource that plays an important role in the pedosphere, providing important abiotic ES, but its monetary value is often not identified in the market due to a lack of information and/or knowledge of the proper valuation method. This study demonstrates one approach to translate atmospheric magnesium deposition flows entering the soil as an abiotic ES and potential monetary values at various scales. Omission of abiotic services in ES analysis can lead to an incomplete economic valuation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern technological advances and trends require new pedagogy and delivery of mapping materials to prepare the future workforce in the disciplines of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) for an increasingly technology-dominated society. The purpose of this study was to develop an Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) Story Map "Soil Forming Factors: Climate" for multiple STEM disciplines based on the design guidelines from the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML). The study incorporated a two-group post-test only design that utilized multiple methods of analysis, including a quality assessment of the ESRI Story Map using the five principles of effective storytelling, direct quantitative measures of learning (quiz), and surveys of participants' perceptions (PowerPoint presentation versus ESRI Story Map) using QualtricsTM. Survey results were summarized by gender, academic classification (year), and academic major program. The newly developed ESRI Story Map was an effective teaching tool as demonstrated by quiz scores and students' positive responses. Post-testing scores indicated that ESRI Story Maps were an effective way to learn and were viewed as effective as traditional teaching methods (e.g., PowerPoint). Additionally, students reported feeling comfortable using ESRI Story Maps. These positive responses were consistent by gender, major, and academic classification (year). This research indicates that adding audio may improve the use of this ESRI Story Map for educational concept delivery. Empirical studies such as this that include multifaceted quantitative and qualitative assessments are critical to understanding the benefits of new types of multimedia learning in an educational setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric resources are very important for assessing ecosystem services at different administrative levels (e.g., state, region, etc.). Quantification of atmospheric calcium (Ca2+) deposition on the total basis provides incomplete information about the ecosystem services flows (both "natural" and "human-derived"), therefore lacking a systems approach to guide sustainable management of the flows which support many ecosystem services. This study assessed the value of wet, dry, and total atmospheric calcium deposition flows in the contiguous United States (U.S.) by different spatial aggregation levels (e.g., state, region) using information from the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3) and commodity prices of human-derived materials: agricultural limestone (CaCO3) and uncalcined gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O). The total provisioning ecosystem value of atmospheric calcium deposition flows was $66.7M (i.e., 66.7 million U.S. dollars) ($30M wet + $36.7M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $10.42 per U.S. ton of agricultural limestone (CaCO3) or nearly $364M ($164M wet + $200M dry) based on an average 2014 price of $33.00 per U.S. ton gypsum (CaSO4•2H2O). The quantified spatial distribution of wet, dry, and total atmospheric calcium deposition could be used to identify areas with opportunities for more efficient use of "human-derived" materials since they are already being supplied by atmospheric deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conversion of native grasslands to agricultural sites has resulted in remarkable changes in soil carbon at depth, but its impact on soil diagnostic horizons is unknown. This study was conducted to radiocarbon date the soil organic carbon (SOC) and quantify pedogenic carbonates in the Russian Chernozem at depth at three sites: a native grassland field (not cultivated for at least 300 years), an adjacent 50-year continuous fallow field in the V.V. Alekhin Central-Chernozem Biosphere State Reserve in the Kursk region of Russia (UNESCO—MAB Biosphere Reserve), and a cropland in the Experimental Station of the Kursk Institute of Agronomy and Soil Erosion Control. All sampled soils were classified as Fine-silty, mixed, frigid Pachic Hapludolls (Haplic Chernozem). The radiocarbon age (14C date, y BP) of SOC was highly variable: in the native grassland field, it varied from post-bomb (A-horizon) to 8011 ± 54 y BP (C-horizon); in the continuous fallow, it varied from 1569 ± 41 y BP (Ap-horizon) to 11,380 ± 180 y BP (C1-horizon); and in the cropland, it varied from 1055 ± 38 y BP (Ap-horizon) to 11,805 ± 68 y BP (Ck-horizon). Cultivation resulted in morphological/diagnostic changes in the soil profile (conversion of A to Ap; conversion of Bw to Bk horizon) over a 50-year period. These changes are supported by radiocarbon dating of SOC and pedogenic carbonate distribution within the soil profile. The proportion of pedogenic carbonates was highly variable: in the native grassland, it was 27% (C-horizon); in the continuous fallow, it varied from 53% (Bk1-horizon) to 72% (C2-horizon); and in the cropland, it varied from 85% (A-horizon) to 10% (Ck-horizon). The radiocarbon age differences with depth among the soils reflect changes in the soil carbon dynamics resulting from cultivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensor technology can be a reliable and inexpensive means of gathering soils data for soil health assessment at the farm scale. This study demonstrates the use of color system readings from the Nix ProTM color sensor (Nix Sensor Ltd., Hamilton, ON, Canada) to predict soil organic carbon (SOC) as well as total nitrogen (TN) in variable, glacial till soils at the 147 ha Cornell University Willsboro Research Farm, located in Upstate New York, USA. Regression analysis was conducted using the natural log of SOC (lnSOC) and the natural log of TN (lnTN) as dependent variables, and sample depth and color data were used as predictors for 155 air dried soil samples. Analysis was conducted for combined samples, Alfisols, and Entisols as separate sample sets and separate models were developed using depth and color variables, and color variables only. Depth and L* were significant predictors of lnSOC and lnTN for all sample sets. The color variable b* was not a significant predictor of lnSOC for any soil sample set, but it was for lnTN for all sample sets. The lnSOC prediction model for Alfisols, which included depth, had the highest R2 value (0.81, p-value < 0.001). The lnSOC model for Entisols, which contained only color variables, had the lowest R2 (0.62, p-value < 0.001). The results suggest that the Nix ProTM color sensor is an effective tool for the rapid assessment of SOC and TN content for these soils. With the accuracy and low cost of this sensor technology, it will be possible to greatly increase the spatial and temporal density of SOC and TN estimates, which is critical for soil management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]