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In this paper, we propose and demonstrate a network analysis optical frequency domain reflectometer (NA-OFDR) for distributed temperature measurements at high spatial (down to ≈3 cm) and temperature resolution. The system makes use of a frequency-stepped, continuous-wave (cw) laser whose output light is modulated using a vector network analyzer. The latter is also used to demodulate the amplitude of the beat signal formed by coherently mixing the Rayleigh backscattered light with a local oscillator. The system is capable of attaining high measurand resolution (≈50 mK at 3-cm spatial resolution) thanks to the high sensitivity of coherent Rayleigh scattering to temperature. Furthermore, unlike the conventional optical-frequency domain reflectometry (OFDR), the proposed system does not rely on the use of a tunable laser and therefore is less prone to limitations related to the laser coherence or sweep nonlinearity. Two configurations are analyzed, both numerically and experimentally, based on either a double-sideband or single-sideband modulated probe light. The results confirm the validity of the proposed approach.

In order to complete this set of three companion papers, in this last, we focus our attention on environmental monitoring by taking advantage of photonic technologies. After reporting on some configurations useful for high precision agriculture, we explore the problems connected with soil water content measurement and landslide early warning. Then, we concentrate on a new generation of seismic sensors useful in both terrestrial and under water contests. Finally, we discuss a number of optical fiber sensors for use in radiation environments.

The employability of photonics technology in the modern era’s highly demanding and sophisticated domain of aerospace and submarines has been an appealing challenge for the scientific communities. In this paper, we review our main results achieved so far on the use of optical fiber sensors for safety and security in innovative aerospace and submarine applications. In particular, recent results of in-field applications of optical fiber sensors in aircraft monitoring, from a weight and balance analysis to vehicle Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) and Landing Gear (LG) monitoring, are presented and discussed. Moreover, underwater fiber-optic hydrophones are presented from the design to marine application.

Our group, involving researchers from different universities in Campania, Italy, has been working for the last twenty years in the field of photonic sensors for safety and security in healthcare, industrial and environment applications. This is the first in a series of three companion papers. In this paper, we introduce the main concepts of the technologies employed for the realization of our photonic sensors. Then, we review our main results concerning the innovative applications for infrastructural and transportation monitoring.

In this paper, we propose and demonstrate a damage detection technique based on the automatic classification of the Lamb wave signals acquired on a metallic plate. In the reported experiments, Lamb waves are excited in an aluminum plate through a piezoelectric transducer glued onto the monitored structure. The response of the monitored structure is detected through a high-resolution phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometer (ϕ-OTDR). The presence and location of a small perturbation, induced by placing a lumped mass of 5 g on the plate, are determined by processing the optical fiber sensor data through support vector machine (SVM) classifiers trained with experimental data. The results show that the proposed method takes full advantage of the multipoint sensing nature of the ϕ-OTDR technology, resulting in accurate damage detection and localization.

In this paper, the use of a phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometry (ϕ-OTDR) sensor for the detection of the Lamb waves excited by a piezoelectric transducer in an aluminum plate, is investigated. The system is shown to detect and resolve the Lamb wave in distinct regions of the plate, opening the possibility of realizing structural health monitoring (SHM) and damage detection using a single optical fiber attached to the structure. The system also reveals the variations in the Lamb wave resulting from a change in the load conditions of the plate. The same optical fiber used to detect the Lamb waves has also been employed to realize distributed strain measurements using a Brillouin scattering system. The method can be potentially used to replace conventional SHM sensors such as strain gauges and PZT transducers, with the advantage of offering several sensing points using a single fiber.

We report the experimental application of distributed optical fiber sensors, based on stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS), to the monitoring of a small-scale granular slope reconstituted in an instrumented flume and subjected to artificial rainfall until failure, and to the monitoring of a volcanic rock slope. The experiments demonstrate the sensors’ ability to reveal the sudden increase in soil strain that foreruns the failure in a debris flow phenomenon, as well as to monitor the fractures in the tuff rocks. This study offers an important perspective on the use of distributed optical fiber sensors in the setting up of early warning systems for landslides in both rock and unconsolidated materials.

This paper shows the results of the monitoring of the deformations of a tunnel, carried out using a distributed optical fiber strain sensor based on stimulated Brillouin scattering. The artificial tunnel of the national railway crosses the accumulation zone of an active landslide, the Varco d’Izzo earthflow, in the southern Italian Apennines. Severely damaged by the landslide movements, the tunnel was demolished and rebuilt in 1992 as a reinforced concrete box flanked by two deep sheet pile walls. In order to detect the onset of potentially dangerous strains of the tunnel structure and follow their time trend, the internal deformations of the tunnel are also monitored by a distributed fiber-optic strain sensor since 2016. The results of the monitoring activity show that the deformation profiles are characterized by strain peaks in correspondence of the structural joints. Furthermore, the elongation of the fiber strands crossing the joints is consistent with the data derived by other measurement systems. Experiments revealed an increase in the time rate of the fiber deformation in the first and last part of the monitoring period when the inclinometers of the area also recorded an acceleration in the landslide movements.

In this work, we experimentally analyzed the effect of tapering in light-diffusing optical fibers (LDFs) when employed as surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based sensors. Although tapering is commonly adopted to enhance the performance of plasmonic optical fiber sensors, we have demonstrated that in the case of plasmonic sensors based on LDFs, the tapering produces a significant worsening of the bulk sensitivity (roughly 60% in the worst case), against a slight decrease in the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the SPR spectra. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that these aspects become more pronounced when the taper ratio increases. Secondly, we have established that a possible alternative exists in using the tapered LDF as a modal filter after the sensible region. In such a case, we have determined that a good trade-off between the loss in sensitivity and the FWHM decrease could be reached.

Nowadays, the development of simple, fast, and low-cost selective sensors to detect substances of interest is of great importance in several application fields. Among this kind of sensors, those based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) represent a promising category, since they are highly sensitive, versatile, and label-free. In this work, an SPR probe, based on a poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) slab waveguide covered by a gold nanofilm, combined with a specific molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) receptor for bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein, has been realized and experimentally characterized. The obtained experimental results have shown a limit of detection (LOD) equal to about 8.5 × 10−9 M. This value is smaller than the one achieved by another SPR probe, based on a D-shaped plastic optical fiber (POF), functionalized with the same MIP receptor; more specifically, the obtained LOD was reduced by about three orders of magnitude with respect to the POF configuration. Moreover, concerning the D-shaped POF configuration, no manufacturing process is present in the proposed sensor configuration. In addition, fibers are used only to connect the simple sensor chip with a light source and a detector, promoting a bio-chemical sensing approach based on disposable, low-cost, and removable chips.

We demonstrate the use of a graded-index perfluorinated optical fiber (GI-POF) for distributed static and dynamic strain measurements based on Rayleigh scattering. The system is based on an amplitude-based phase-sensitive Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry (ϕ-OTDR) configuration, operated at the unconventional wavelength of 850 nm. Static strain measurements have been carried out at a spatial resolution of 4 m and for a strain up to 3.5% by exploiting the increase of the backscatter Rayleigh coefficient consequent to the application of a tensile strain, while vibration/acoustic measurements have been demonstrated for a sampling frequency up to 833 Hz by exploiting the vibration-induced changes in the backscatter Rayleigh intensity time-domain traces arising from coherent interference within the pulse. The reported tests demonstrate that polymer optical fibers can be used for cost-effective multiparameter sensing.

In a specific biosensing application, a nanoplasmonic sensor chip has been tested by an experimental setup based on an aluminum holder and two plastic optical fibers used to illuminate and collect the transmitted light. The studied plasmonic probe is based on gold nanograting, realized on the top of a Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) chip. The PMMA substrate could be considered as a transparent substrate and, in such a way, it has been already used in previous work. Alternatively, here it is regarded as a slab waveguide. In particular, we have deposited upon the slab surface, covered with a nanograting, a synthetic receptor specific for bovine serum albumin (BSA), to test the proposed biosensing approach. Exploiting this different experimental configuration, we have determined how the orientation of the nanostripes forming the grating pattern, with respect to the direction of the input light (longitudinal or orthogonal), influences the biosensing performances. For example, the best limit of detection (LOD) in the BSA detection that has been obtained is equal to 23 pM. Specifically, the longitudinal configuration is characterized by two observable plasmonic phenomena, each sensitive to a different BSA concentration range, ranging from pM to µM. This aspect plays a key role in several biochemical sensing applications, where a wide working range is required.

Over the past three decades, extensive research activity on Brillouin scattering-based distributed optical fiber sensors has led to the availability of commercial instruments capable of measuring the static temperature/strain distribution over kilometer distances and with high spatial resolution, with applications typically covering structural and environmental monitoring. At the same time, the interest in dynamic measurements has rapidly grown due to the relevant number of applications which could benefit from this technology, including structural analysis for defect identification, vibration detection, railway traffic monitoring, shock events detection, and so on. In this paper, we present an overview of the recent advances in Brillouin-based distributed optical fiber sensors for dynamic sensing. The aspects of the Brillouin scattering process relevant in distributed dynamic measurements are analyzed, and the different techniques are compared in terms of performance and hardware complexity.

In this work, we have compared several configurations of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors based on D-shaped tapered plastic optical fibers (TPOFs). Particularly, the TPOFs used to obtain the SPR sensors are made by a lab-built system based on two motorized linear positioning stages and a heating plate. Preliminarily, a comparative analysis has been carried out between two different configurations, one with and one without a thin buffer layer deposited between the core of TPOFs and the gold film. After this preliminary step, we have used the simpler configuration, obtained without the buffer layer, to realize different SPR D-shaped TPOF sensors. This study could be of interest in SPR D-shaped multimode plastic optical fiber (POF) sensors because, without the tapers, the performances decrease when the POF’s diameter decreases, whereas the performances improve in SPR D-shaped tapered POF sensors, where the diameter decreases in the D-shaped sensing area. The performances of the SPR sensors based on different taper ratios have been analyzed and compared. The SPR-TPOF sensors have been tested using water–glycerin mixtures with refractive indices ranging from 1.332 to 1.381 RIU. According to the theory, the experimental results have demonstrated that, as the taper ratio increases, the sensitivity of the SPR sensor increases as well, while on the contrary the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) decreases.

Centrifugal model tests, which can reproduce the deformation process of the slope, play a crucial role in investigating the mechanism of slope failure. The FBG-based sensors, with high precision, electromagnetic resistance, light weight and small size, have been introduced into geotechnical centrifuge monitoring. The slope evolution is a complex multi-parameter dynamic process which involves the interaction of displacement, stress and strain. However, current research is mainly focused on one or two monitoring aspects, i.e., strain or displacement monitoring to study some specific questions. To achieve multi-parameter and real-time monitoring, a comprehensive fiber Bragg grating (FBG) monitoring system including miniaturized anchors, earth pressure gauges, inclinometer pipe and retaining wall, has been designed for geotechnical centrifuge tests. Before the centrifugal test, laboratory calibrations of sensors were carried out. The calibration results indicate that the FBG-based sensors can monitor the strain, stress and displacement variation precisely. The multi-parameter information related to slope stability were captured and analyzed in detail. The stress state of the anchors, strain distribution of retaining wall together with the displacement of the inclinometer pipe indicate the progressive evolutionary process of the model slope. The test results also indicate that the critical centrifugal force for the transition of the sliding surface is 45 g, after which, a sliding surface is formed in the soil above the retaining wall. The feasibility and validity of the monitoring system is verified by a comparison between the results of FBG-based sensors and those of a numerical simulation. In summary, the innovative FBG-based monitoring system has provided a feasible multi-parameter monitoring method in geotechnical centrifugal tests so as to facilitate further in-depth analysis.

We have investigated, in a numerical and experimental way, a refractive index (RI) sensor based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) in a silver-coated light-diffusing fiber (LDF). The experimental tests were conducted using water-glycerine mixtures with refractive indices ranging from 1.332 to 1.388. In the considered refractive index range, the experimental results show a sensitivity of the SPR wavelength to the outer medium’s RI ranging from ~2600 to ~4700 nm/RIU, which is larger than the sensitivity recently reported for a gold-coated LDF sensor (~1200 to ~4000 nm/RIU). The silver-coated sensor is also shown to ensure a higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) compared to the gold-coated sensor.

Monitoring volcanic phenomena is a key question, for both volcanological research and for civil protection purposes. This is particularly true in densely populated volcanic areas, like the Campi Flegrei caldera, which includes part of the large city of Naples (Italy). Borehole monitoring of volcanoes is the most promising way to improve classical methods of surface monitoring, although not commonly applied yet. Fiber optics technology is the most practical and suitable way to operate in such high temperature and aggressive environmental conditions. In this paper, we describe a fiber optics Distributed Temperature Sensing (DTS) sensor, which has been designed to continuously measure temperature all along a 500 m. deep well drilled in the west side of Naples (Bagnoli area), lying in the Campi Flegrei volcanic area. It has then been installed as part of the international ‘Campi Flegrei Deep Drilling Project’, and is continuously operating, giving insight on the time variation of temperature along the whole borehole depth. Such continuous monitoring of temperature can in turn indicate volcanic processes linked to magma dynamics and/or to changes in the hydrothermal system. The developed monitoring system, working at bottom temperatures higher than 100 °C, demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of using DTS for borehole volcanic monitoring.

Slope failure is a complex process which depends on several factors concerning nature and properties of soil, slope morphology and structure, past stress history, groundwater regime, boundary conditions, and their changes. As a consequence, the mechanism of slope failure is typically characterized by the development of a highly non-uniform strain field, which does not allow an easy prediction of the failure conditions. Usually, the process which will bring the slope to final collapse starts with local soil failure, which then leads to formation and propagation of a shear zone, and finally to general slope failure. This mechanical process is called progressive failure. However, in spite of the progresses in the knowledge of the slope behavior, a complete framework about the progressive failure is still missing; in particular, information about the response of granular unsaturated sloping soils is very poor. This paper reports the results of a couple of small-scale experiments on slopes reconstituted with unsaturated pyroclastic soils and subjected to continuous rainfall. The use of miniaturized sensors and optical fibers provided useful data to read some aspects of the mechanics of failure.

This work reports on the application of a distributed fiber-optic strain sensor for long-term monitoring of a railway tunnel affected by an active earthflow. The sensor has been applied to detect the strain distribution along an optical fiber attached along the two walls of the tunnel. The experimental results, relative to a two-year monitoring campaign, demonstrate that the sensor is able to detect localized strains, identify their location along the tunnel walls, and follow their temporal evolution.

In this paper, we show that light-diffusing fibers (LDF) can be efficiently used as host material for surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based refractive index sensing. This novel platform does not require a chemical procedure to remove the cladding or enhance the evanescent field, which is expected to give better reproducibility of the sensing interface. The SPR sensor has been realized by first removing the cladding with a simple mechanical stripper, and then covering the unclad fiber surface with a thin gold film. The tests have been carried out using water–glycerin mixtures with refractive indices ranging from 1.332 to 1.394. The experimental results reveal a high sensitivity of the SPR wavelength to the outer medium’s refractive index, with values ranging from ~1500 to ~4000 nm/RIU in the analyzed range. The results suggest that the proposed optical fiber sensor platform could be used in biochemical applications.

In this paper, we investigate the capability of a Brillouin Optical Time-Domain Analysis [...]

A temperature profile 2400 m along the off-shore active caldera of Campi Flegrei (Gulf of Pozzuoli) was obtained by the installation of a permanent fiber-optic monitoring system within the framework of the Innovative Monitoring for Coastal and Marine Environment (MON.I.C.A) project. The system consists of a submerged, reinforced, multi-fiber cable containing six single-mode telecom grade optical fibers that, exploiting the stimulated Brillouin scattering, provide distributed temperature sensing (DTS) with 1 m of spatial resolution. The obtained data show that the offshore caldera, at least along the monitored profile, has many points of heat discharge associated with fluid emission. A loose association between the temperature profile and the main structural features of the offshore caldera was also evidenced by comparing DTS data with a high-resolution reflection seismic survey. This represents an important advancement in the monitoring of this high-risk volcanic area, since temperature variations are among the precursors of magma migration towards the surface and are also crucial data in the study of caldera dynamics. The adopted system can also be applied to many other calderas which are often partially or largely submerged and hence difficult to monitor.