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Pregnancy is characterized by significant immunological changes and a cytokine profile, as well as vitamin deficiencies that can cause problems for the correct development of a fetus. Defensins are small antimicrobial peptides that are part of the innate immune system and are involved in several biological activities. Following that, this study aims to compare the levels of various cytokines and to investigate the role of defensins between pregnant women with confirmed COVID-19 infection and pregnant women without any defined risk factor. TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-2 and IL-10, β-defensins, have been evaluated by gene expression in our population. At the same time, by ELISA assay IL-6, IL-8, defensin alpha 1, defensin beta 1 and defensin beta 4 have been measured. The data obtained show that mothers affected by COVID-19 have an increase in pro-inflammatory factors (TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8) compared to controls; this increase could generate a sort of “protection of the fetus” from virus attacks. Contemporarily, we have an increase in the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and an increase in AMPs, which highlights how the mother’s body is responding to the viral attack. These results allow us to hypothesize a mechanism of “trafficking” of antimicrobial peptides from the mother to the fetus that would help the fetus to protect itself from the infection in progress.

In order to assess water efficiency options on the European scale, a multi-criteria integrative hydro-economic modeling framework has been developed. With this framework, it is possible to assess combinations of measures which could help reducing the gap between water demand and water availability, while taking into account ecological, water quality, flood risk and economic aspects. The assessed measures include water retention, water savings and nutrient reduction measures. The presented work was carried out within the framework of the “Blueprint to safeguard Europe’s waters” policy initiative of the European Commission. Contrary to earlier studies concentrating on single measures in single river basins, this study shows that this modeling environment can evaluate combinations of measures in multiple river basins that meet the considered objectives, and in general can improve various water quantity and quality indicators as compared to the baseline situation. However, additional work is needed on for example quantifying the economics of damage and benefits before the modelling environment may be used for policy advice.