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This paper introduces the EGTL (extract, generate, transfer, load) model, a theoretical framework designed to enhance the traditional ETL processes by integrating a novel ‘generate’ step utilizing generative artificial intelligence (GenAI). This enhancement optimizes data extraction and processing, presenting a high-level solution architecture that includes innovative data storage concepts: the Fusion and Alliance stores. The Fusion store acts as a virtual space for immediate data cleaning and profiling post-extraction, facilitated by GenAI, while the Alliance store serves as a collaborative data warehouse for both business users and AI processes. EGTL was developed to facilitate advanced data handling and integration within digital ecosystems. This study defines the EGTL solution design, setting the groundwork for future practical implementations and exploring the integration of best practices from data engineering, including DataOps principles and data mesh architecture. This research underscores how EGTL can improve the data engineering pipeline, illustrating the interactions between its components. The EGTL model was tested in the prototype web-based Hyperloop Decision-Making Ecosystem with tasks ranging from data extraction to code generation. Experiments demonstrated an overall success rate of 93% across five difficulty levels. Additionally, the study highlights key risks associated with EGTL implementation and offers comprehensive mitigation strategies.

This review paper examines the appropriateness of a hyperloop line between Mumbai and Pune in India, examining, in particular, its potential economic implications and impact on people. This assessment builds on an earlier in-depth examination by the authors of the key urban and transport planning, technical, environmental, economic and human factors surrounding the hyperloop technology. The current detailed analysis of hyperloop’s expected implications in the Mumbai to Pune corridor is based upon use of a wide variety of existing indicative data from many sources, which are sufficient to provide a very broad “first-step” reality testing of hyperloop’s suitability to India. It could be argued that this is precisely the kind of analysis that should have been conducted, or at least made public, prior to committing to hyperloop in India. The paper highlights many negatives concerning hyperloop’s construction and operation, including a very high capital cost compared to other needed urban transport infrastructure projects in India, a potential lack of patronage due to a range of factors and its potentially exclusive upper income patronage cohort. It is concluded that rather than making a costly mistake, India should address current urban mobility challenges and needs such as bus rapid transit (BRT) and metros in its innumerable cities, whose construction costs are vastly lower than the expected cost of a single hyperloop line. Technology, such as the hyperloop, would need time to mature and gain operational experience. Should any corridor be found suitable, there would still need to be a thorough, detailed benefit–cost analysis together with a dedicated examination of the technology’s broader urban planning implications and less tangible factors. Setting aside the ultimate worthiness of hyperloops, India would need to at least achieve certain preconditions before proposing or pursuing such systems in the country.

The rapidly evolving urbanization is generating unprecedented travel demand, notably in intercity travel. With increasing challenges in motorized traffic, innovative and sustainable transport modes are more than ever necessary. The Hyperloop system is an emerging transportation mode with the potential to change long–distance commutes, especially between cities. There is a need for, but also gap in, understanding this potentially emerging transport mode. This study aims at filling this gap by deploying a stated preference study in Germany, in which data was collected for 786 respondents with 5640 scenarios, to investigate the factors impacting users’ preferences towards Hyperloop systems. Models were developed to examine factors impacting the immediate Hyperloop adoption (in the first year of its implementation), but also the choice between Hyperloop and other long–distance travel modes, such as airplanes and high-speed trains. Results indicate that mode-related characteristics (travel time, travel cost, safety), individual characteristics (gender, income level, availability of a driving license, access to a car, familiarity with the Hyperloop system), the current satisfaction level with high-speed trains and airplanes, and personality traits (confidence, affinity to technology) are the most significant factors in the choice and early adoption of Hyperloop systems.

The hyperloop concept envisions a low pressure tube and capsules, called pods, traveling at the speed of commercial aircraft as a sustainable, future-proof mass transportation system between cities. However, in contrast to the use case of such a system, the detailed technical concept is still under development. One challenging difference in comparison to other modes of transportation lies in the technical concept of the infrastructure, which is hard to change in the long term and therefore allows a few iterations only. This study’s key contribution is to showcase the conceptual design decisions of the 24 m full-scale Hyperloop Demonstrator at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) for the propulsion and suspension system, featuring the design decision tree (DDT) method as a framework to visualize and explain the technical design decisions and dependencies of complex hardware systems. The construction of the full-scale demonstrator not only proved the feasibility of the concept but also provided valuable concept-level experiences, which are shared within this work. Compared to existing maglev and hyperloop concepts, the presented concept features a separated air-cored long stator propulsion system and a homopolar electromagnetic suspension at the bottom with the track wrapping around the vehicle, revealing promising advantages like the structural simplification of the infrastructure and the independence of the guideway and tube.

Super-high-speed guided systems such as hyperloops and MagLev are highly at risk of cyber and physical threats from either natural or man-made hazards. This study thus adopts a nonlinear finite element method to investigate and analyse blast responses of a spatial thin-shell structure formed as an essential part of the Hyperloop tunnelling system. The thin-shell structure is a longitudinal cylindrical tube used in hyperloop rail concepts that will have the capability to carry passenger pods travelling at speeds in excess of 1000 km/h. A robust parametric study has been carried out on a thin-shell metallic cylinder in accordance with experimental results to validate the blast simulation modelling approach. In addition, case studies have been conducted to simulate the effects of varied charge loading (TNT equivalent) of 10 kg, 15 kg and 20 kg. Since the hyperloop system is in its development stages, potential design modifications to adjust the thickness of the thin-shell cylinder are also simulated. Our findings demonstrate that thicker walls of 30 mm yield almost negligible dynamic displacements with lower blast pressures. However, this modification can cause serious ramifications in terms of infrastructure costs. On this ground, venting ports for blast mitigation have been proposed to alter and alleviate blast effects on the tube deformations. The novel insights reveal that increased venting port sizes can significantly increase the impulse deformations of the hyperloop tube but are key in reducing blast pressures within the asset infrastructure. These findings will inform hyperloop engineers about potential design solutions to ensure safety and reliability of future hyperloop rail travels amid the risks and uncertainties of cyber and physical threats.

Hyperloop is envisioned as the next generation of railway transportation mode, which can proceed at a speed of more than 1000 km/h. The safe operation of the Hyperloop depends heavily on the support of a stable communication system. In this paper, we propose a 3D channel model in vacuum tube scenarios based on the ray-tracing method. The reflection paths and line of sight (LoS) paths are considered. We derive the channel transfer function (CTF) expression for each multipath, and then the channel impulse response (CIR) is obtained. On this basis, the large-scale and small-scale channel characteristics, including path loss, shadow fading, correlation coefficient, delay spread, and angular spread, are investigated and analyzed. Simulation results show that the proposed channel model can characterize the wireless channel in the Hyperloop scenarios in detail, and the results maintain a high level of symmetry between the range of 0–250 m and 250–500 m. The relevant research results will contribute to the design of future Hyperloop wireless communication systems.

The current environmental concern has led both the industry and researchers to look for alternate means of transport. Amongst them, the hyperloop has become a quite promising idea. In order to overcome some of its limitations, including a compressor in its propulsive system has been investigated. In this paper, a strategy to improve the design of the mixer, which will blend the bypass and core streams coming out of the compressor, was addressed. Due to the lack of ad hoc compressors and the impossibility of experimental testing, a multidimensional optimization methodology with CFD tools was developed. A Taguchi DOE was employed for a preliminary 2D optimization from an initial geometry, whereas a numerical adjoint method was explored for the whole 3D mixer. By using this method, an initial decrease in the pressure drop of 16% was obtained with the 2D stage, whereas an additional 10% reduction was achieved in the 3D optimization. With this, the propulsive efficiency of the whole hyperloop system will be improved.

High-speed vehicles traveling in a tube with pressures similar to those experienced by aircraft at their maximum altitude are presented. Although the concept resembles Hyperloop, the pressure level investigated here is much higher and safer than that suggested by Hyperloop, and, therefore, the system design is markedly different. Calculating a vehicle’s aerodynamic performance in the initial design stages requires low-budget computational tools to enable iterative design processes. This study presents an algorithm for rapid flow-field prediction based on a one-dimensional Reimann solution, including viscosity and heat transfer effects. The flow-field is divided into near- and far-fields, where the near-field represents the solution directly around the vehicle. The far-field demonstrates the impact of the vehicle’s motion on the vehicle’s flow-field upstream and downstream. Two-dimensional URANS models are compared to the current numerical scheme. The developed algorithm analyzes the flow-field and the propagation of pressure waves along the tube to simulate the vehicle’s movement. The one-dimensional model shows the robustness and predictability of the near and far flow-fields. The results from the developed scheme provide good agreement, with less than a few percent deviations, compared to CFD simulations but with significantly lower computational resources.

This article presents a new method for combined levitation and propulsion control in maglev/Hyperloop systems by selectively applying AC and DC modes of operation to a group of asymmetric double-sided linear induction motors (ADSLIMs). Although adjusting the AC current magnitude of lower and upper primary windings in ADSLIMs allows simultaneous control of thrust and lift forces, the limitation of this current balancing technique prohibits them from producing a high lift force while operating with low thrust force. To overcome this limitation and to simultaneously control the thrust and lift forces of the ADSLIMs with high efficiency under different operating conditions, a combination of AC and DC modes of operation is proposed. AC mode of operation consists of feeding different AC current amplitudes to the upper and lower ADSLIM primary windings to produce and control the required thrust and lift forces. The DC mode of operation consists of controlling one or several ADSLIMs to operate with DC excitation to realize the desired lift force at lower thrusts which otherwise cannot be achieved by operating in AC mode alone. The concept of the new combined control strategy is studied using two-dimensional finite element (FE) electromagnetic simulations and compared with an Inductrack permanent magnet (PM) based passive magnetic levitation system.

Hyperloop is a proposed very high-speed ground transportation system for both passenger and freight that has the potential to be revolutionary, and which has attracted much attention in the last few years. The concept was introduced in its modern form relatively recently, yet substantial progress has been made in the past years, with research and development taking place globally, from several Hyperloop companies and academics. This study examined the status of Hyperloop development and identified issues and challenges by means of a systematic review that analyzed 161 documents from the Scopus database on Hyperloop since 2014. Following that, a taxonomy of topics from scientific research was built under different physical and operational clusters. The findings could be of help to transportation academics and professionals who are interested in the developments in the field, and form the basis for policy decisions for the future implementation of Hyperloop.

This study addresses the Hyperloop characterized by a capsule-type vehicle, superconducting electrodynamic suspension (SC-EDS) levitation, and driving in a near-vacuum tube. Because the Hyperloop is different from conventional transportation, various considerations are required in the vehicle-design stage. Particularly, pre-investigation of the vehicle dynamic characteristics is essential because of the close relationship among the vehicle design parameters, such as size, weight, and suspensions. Accordingly, a 1/10 scale Hyperloop vehicle system model, enabling the analysis of dynamic motions in the vertical and lateral directions, was developed. The reduced-scale model is composed of bogies operated by Stewart platforms, secondary suspension units, and a car body. To realize the bogie motion, an operation algorithm reflecting the external disturbance, SC-EDS levitation, and interaction between the bogie and car body, was applied to the Stewart platform. Flexible rubber springs were used in the secondary suspension unit to enable dynamic characteristic analysis of the vertical and lateral motion. Results of the verification tests were compared with simulation results to examine the fitness of the developed model. The results showed that the developed reduced-scale model could successfully represent the complete dynamic characteristics, owing to the enhanced precision of the Stewart platform and the secondary suspension allowing biaxial motions.

This paper presents the concept of one possible but unconventional implementation of a Low Pressure Tube Transport (LPTT) system for a network with station-to-station distances of 300 km, based on the use of circular tunnels in which modular vehicles consisting of three interconnected functional segments move on wheels with airless tires. The physical limitations associated with high-speed vehicle travel in tunnels are presented. The reasons for the expected inconvenience in the travel system, compensated by short travel times, are justified. Assumptions for the use of locomotion, safety, and passenger segments in the construction of a vacuum modular vehicle are presented, as well as systems to ensure the efficient conversion of serial traffic in tunnels to parallel traffic in station areas. Schemes of station construction and traffic organization in the station area are presented, as well as assumptions for a number of systems increasing the safety of vehicle traffic used in emergency situations. Visualizations of some solutions are presented. Details of the construction of a locomotive segment based on a multi-wheel system of airless wheels with the use of a system of linear motors for acceleration and an inertial drive system between them to reduce its weight are presented. Some conclusions from tests conducted on built simulators, mechanical and virtual, of the passenger segment of a vacuum vehicle are discussed.

One of the most restrictive conditions in ground transportation at high speeds is aerodynamic drag. This is even more problematic when running inside a tunnel, where compressible phenomena such as wave propagation, shock waves, or flow blocking can happen. Considering Evacuated-Tube Trains (ETTs) or hyperloops, these effects appear during the whole route, as they always operate in a closed environment. Then, one of the concerns is the size of the tunnel, as it directly affects the cost of the infrastructure. When the tube size decreases with a constant section of the vehicle, the power consumption increases exponentially, as the Kantrowitz limit is surpassed. This can be mitigated when adding a compressor to the vehicle as a means of propulsion. The turbomachinery increases the pressure of part of the air faced by the vehicle, thus delaying the critical conditions on surrounding flow. With tunnels using a blockage ratio of 0.5 or higher, the reported reduction in the power consumption is 70%. Additionally, the induced pressure in front of the capsule became a negligible effect. The analysis of the flow shows that the compressor can remove the shock waves downstream and thus allows operation above the Kantrowitz limit. Actually, for a vehicle speed of 700 km/h, the case without a compressor reaches critical conditions at a blockage ratio of 0.18, which is a tunnel even smaller than those used for High-Speed Rails (0.23). When aerodynamic propulsion is used, sonic Mach numbers are reached above a blockage ratio of 0.5. A direct effect is that cases with turbomachinery can operate in tunnels with blockage ratios even 2.8 times higher than the non-compressor cases, enabling a considerable reduction in the size of the tunnel without affecting the performance. This work, after conducting bibliographic research, presents the geometry, mesh, and setup. Later, results for the flow without compressor are shown. Finally, it is discussed how the addition of the compressor improves the flow behavior and power consumption of the case.

The new generation of capsules that circulate through vacuum tubes at speeds up to 1200 km/h, which is being developed, demands communication systems that can operate at these speeds with high capacity and quality of service. Currently, the two technologies available are the new generation of 802.11ax networks and 5G NR. Using these technologies at such high speeds in a confined environment requires a careful study and design of the configuration of the network and optimization of the physical interface. This paper describes the requirements for critical and business communications, proposing a WLAN and 5G network design based on the analysis of the propagation characteristics and constraints of vacuum tubes and using propagation measurements and simulations made in similar environments at frequencies of 2.5/5.7/24 GHz. These measurements and simulations show that propagation losses in this environment are low (4–5 dB/100 m), as a consequence of the guided propagation, so that the use of bands is preferred. Finally, considering the propagation constraints and requirements of a Hyperloop system, a complete wireless communication system is proposed using two networks with 802.11 and 5G technology.

The Hyperloop is a concept for the high-speed ground transportation of passengers traveling in pods at transonic speeds in a partially evacuated tube. It consists of a low-pressure tube with capsules traveling at both low and high speeds throughout the length of the tube. When a high-speed system travels through a low-pressure tube with a constrained diameter such as in the case of the Hyperloop, it becomes an aerodynamically challenging problem. Airflow tends to get choked at the constrained areas around the pod, creating a high-pressure region at the front of the pod, a phenomenon referred to as the “piston effect.” Papers exploring potential solutions for the piston effect are scarce. In this study, using the Reynolds-Average Navier–Stokes (RANS) technique for three-dimensional computational analysis, the aerodynamic performance of a Hyperloop pod inside a vacuum tube is studied. Further, aerofoil-shaped fins are added to the aeroshell as a potential way to mitigate the piston effect. The results show that the addition of fins helps in reducing the drag and eddy currents while providing a positive lift to the pod. Further, these fins are found to be effective in reducing the pressure build-up at the front of the pod.

The paper will present a mathematical model for the guideway as a continuous system, followed by a moving force coming from the capsule and the capsule as a discrete system. The theoretical problem selected for analysis comes from a group of technical problems, which solve the dynamics of systems subjected to moving loads. Dynamic reactions in the system are described by a system of coupled partial and ordinary differential equations. Their solution was obtained using approximate numerical methods. The article concerns the analysis of Hyperloop vehicle guideway displacement in the occurrence of magnetic levitation phenomenon, which appears when starting, driving and braking the vehicle. The analysis was carried out using a numerical, three-dimensional model of the guideway. The results of the analysis are illustrated with calculation examples. The displacement of the guideway and magnet elements was determined by simulations. The simulations were conducted using MBS software. The presented results refer to the movements of the capsule of Hyperloop vehicles.

This paper provides an analysis of a designed underground station infrastructure for vacuum tube high-speed trains for the planned mega transport hub in Poland. The potential of integrating the infrastructure of the station building with sealed low-pressure tubes system is analyzed. The Solidarity Transport Hub Poland is a planned mega hub to be located in Baranów Municipality, Poland, which is comprised of an airport, an airport city, a road, and railway infrastructure. It is to be integrated with the first route of vactrains in Poland. The aim of this paper is to design a hyperloop station building adequate for the advanced technology of low-pressure high-speed trains. Designing a hyperloop station is not trivial, due to technological aspects which have not been hitherto present in airport or railway planning and design, such as low-pressure zones or airlocks which determine possible passenger paths and evacuation roads. Both the mega airport and Polish hyperloop are in the planning stage, therefore, in this paper, available models and designs of the hyperloop station building and infrastructure are used in order to formulate recommendations for further development and identify critical issues related to the safety and reduction of passenger transit time. The main contribution of this paper is a model of the hyperloop station building which respects the principles of spatial planning and safety standards.

The Hyperloop has been developed using various technologies to reach a maximum speed of 1200 km/h. Such technologies include magnetic levitation technologies that are suitable for subsonic driving. In the Hyperloop, the null-flux electrodynamic suspension (EDS) system and superconducting magnets (SCMs) can perform stable levitation without control during high-speed driving. Although an EDS device can be accurately analyzed using numerical analysis methods, such as the 3D finite element method (FEM) or dynamic circuitry theory, its 3D configurations make it difficult to use in various design analyses. This paper presents a new design model that fast analyzes and compares many designs of null-flux EDS devices for the Hyperloop system. For a fast and effective evaluation of various levitation coil shapes and arrangements, the computational process of the induced electromotive force and the coupling effect were simplified using a 2D rectangular coil loop, and the induced current and force equations were written as closed-form solutions using the Fourier analysis. Also, levitation coils were designed, and their characteristics were analyzed and compared with each other. To validate the proposed model, the analyzed force responses for various driving conditions and the changed performance trend by design variables were compared with analyzed FEM results.

Hyperloop is envisioned as a novel transportation way with merits of ultra-high velocity and great traveling comforts. In this paper, we present some concepts on the key technologies dedicated to the train-to-ground communication system based on some prevailing fifth-generation communication (5G) technologies from three aspects: wireless channel, network architecture, and resource management. First, we characterize the wireless channel of the distributed antenna system (DAS) using the propagation-graph channel modelling theory. Simulation reveals that a drastic Doppler shift variation appears when crossing the trackside antenna. Hence, the leaky waveguide system is a promising way to provide a stable receiving signal. In this regard, the radio coverage is briefly estimated. Second, a cloud architecture is utilized to integrate several successive trackside leaky waveguides into a logical cell to reduce the handover frequency. Moreover, based on a many-to-many mapping relationship between distributed units (DUs) and centralized units (CUs), a novel access network architecture is proposed to reduce the inevitable handover cost by using the graph theory. Simulation results show that this scheme can yield a low handover cost. Then, with regards to the ultra-reliable and low latency communication (uRLLC) traffic, a physical resource block (PRB) multiplexing scheme considering the latency requirements of each traffic type is exploited. Simulation presents that this scheme can maximize the throughput of non-critical mission communication services while guaranteeing the requirements of uRLLC traffic. Finally, in terms of the non-critical mission communication services, two cache-based resource management strategies are proposed to boost the throughput and reduce the midhaul link burden by pre-fetching and post-uploading schemes. Simulation demonstrates that the cache-based schemes can boost the throughput dramatically.

The present work focuses on an aerodynamic and heat transfer study of a battery powered vehicle moving in a vacuum tunnel. The conducted research was based on analytical analysis and numerical calculations. Four different vacuum levels in the tunnel were considered—100 Pa, 1 kPa, 10 kPa and 100 kPa—and two distinct velocities of the vehicle—125 and 166 m/s—to address subsonic and supersonic conditions. It allowed defining limitations related to vacuum transportation in terms of velocity of the vehicle and a blocking ratio of the tunnel. Power consumption and drag coefficient for the considered tunnel pressures were analyzed. The cooling analysis of the batteries by passing air was performed numerically and analytically in the function of flow conditions in the tunnel. It gave some insight into main problems related to cooling of the batteries under low pressure and possible directions to solve it. It was shown that the proposed analytical model compared satisfactorily with the numerical results.

The Hyperloop system offers the promise of transportation over distances of 1000 km or more, at speeds approaching the speed of sound, without the complexity and cost of high-speed trains or commercial aviation. Two crucial technological issues must be addressed before a practical system can become operational: air resistance, and contact/levitation friction must both be minimized in order to minimize power requirements and system size. The present work addresses the second issue by estimating the power requirements for each of the three major modes of Hyperloop operation: rolling wheels, sliding air bearings, and levitating magnetic suspension systems. The salient features of each approach are examined using simple theories and a comparison is made of power consumption necessary in each case.

The Hyperloop system is a new concept that allows a train to travel through a near-vacuum tunnel at transonic speeds. Aerodynamic drag is one of the most important factors in analyzing such systems. The blockage ratio (BR), pod speed/length, tube pressure, and temperature affect the aerodynamic drag, but the specific relationships between the drag and these parameters have not yet been comprehensively examined. In this study, we investigated the flow phenomena of a Hyperloop system, focusing on the effects of changes in the above parameters. Two-dimensional axisymmetric simulations were performed in a large parameter space covering various BR values (0.25, 0.36), pod lengths (10.75⁻86 m), pod speeds (50⁻350 m/s), tube pressures (~100⁻1000 Pa), and tube temperatures (275⁻325 K). As BR increased, the pressure drag was significantly affected. This is because of the smaller critical Mach number for a larger BR. As the pod length increased, the total drag and pressure drag did not change significantly, but there was a considerable influence on the friction drag. As the pod speed increased, strong shock waves occurred near the end of the pod. At this point, the flows around the pod were severely choked at both BR values, and the ratio of the pressure drag to the total drag converged to its saturation level. At tube pressures above 500 Pa, the friction drag increased significantly under the rapidly increased turbulence intensity near the pod surface. High tube temperatures increase the speed of sound, and this reduces the Mach number for the same pod speed, consequently delaying the onset of choking and reducing the aerodynamic drag. The results presented in this study are applicable to the fundamental design of the proposed Hyperloop system.

Population growth in cities and expanding city territory as well as population decline in rural areas pose a challenge for the existing transport network. Consequently, we observe a rapid change in transport infrastructure and transportation technology within the last few years. Due to novelty or differentness, it will initially be challenging to integrate them into the existing network in Western European cities and to identify suitable corridors leading to especially beneficial effects on the overall transport network. The effects of new technologies and (high-performance) infrastructures are hardly examined. It remains unclear how these novel transportation technologies will change society, our understanding of spatial proximity, mobility, and consequently the logistics sector. In this work, we give an overview regarding first considerations and reflections on the impacts of the changes and developments in the field of freight transportation. Our work mainly focusses on the estimation of the impacts of high-performance transport technologies on the society, spatial proximity, and the logistics sector while extending the European transportation network accordingly. In our understanding, we refer to high-performance transportation technologies as mobility systems with either high throughput (fast and/or high utilization loads) or very flexible application. To be more specific, we focus on Hyperloop technologies, Cargo-Sous-Terrain, freight airships, and drones.

A smarter transport system that caters for social, economic and environmental sustainability is arguably one of the most critical prerequisites for creating pathways to more livable urban futures. This paper aims to provide a state-of-the-art analysis of a selection of mobility initiatives that may dictate the future of urban transportation and make cities smarter. These are mechanisms either recently introduced with encouraging uptake so far and much greater potential to contribute in a shift to a better transport paradigm or still in an embryonic stage of their development and yet to be embraced as powerful mechanisms that could change travel behaviour norms. Autonomous and connected vehicles are set to revolutionise the urban landscape by allowing machines to take over driving that for over a century has been exclusively a human activity, while electrical vehicles are already helping decarbonising the transport sector. Bus rapid transit has been steadily reinventing and rebranding conventional bus services revitalising the use of the humblest form of public transport, while hyperloop is an entirely new, disruptive, and somewhat provocative, travel mode proposition based on the use of sealed tube systems through which pods could travel free of air resistance with speeds exceeding 1000 km/h. Shared use mobility mechanisms like car-sharing, ride-sharing, ride-sourcing and public bicycles can help establishing a culture for using mobility resources on an as-needed basis, while mobility-as-a-service will take this sharing culture a step further, offering tailored mobility and trip planning packages that could entirely replace the need for privately owned modes of transport.