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This study aimed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of routine childhood immunization with the 20-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV20) in a four-dose regimen (3 + 1 schedule) versus the 15-valent PCV (PCV15/V114) in a three-dose regimen (2 + 1) in Germany. The study utilized a decision-analytic Markov model to estimate lifetime costs and effectiveness outcomes for a single birth cohort in Germany. The model tracked the incidence of acute pneumococcal infections and long-term pneumococcal meningitis sequelae for both vaccination strategies. The vaccine effectiveness data were derived from published clinical trials and observational studies of PCV7 and PCV13. Indirect effects, such as herd protection and serotype replacement, were included in the model. The model adopted a societal perspective, including direct medical, direct non-medical, and indirect costs. Scenario and sensitivity analyses were performed. In the base case, PCV20 prevented more pneumococcal disease cases and deaths, with an expected gain of 96 quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) compared to V114. However, PCV20 was associated with a total incremental cost of EUR 48,358,424, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of EUR 503,620/QALY. Most of the scenario and sensitivity analyses estimated that the ICER for PCV20 exceeded EUR 150,000/QALY. Routine childhood immunization with PCV20 instead of V114 may not be an economically efficient use of healthcare resources in Germany.

Pneumococcal vaccines are a cornerstone for the prevention of pneumococcal diseases, reducing morbidity and mortality in children and adults worldwide. Pneumococcal vaccine composition is based on the polysaccharide capsule of Streptococcus pneumoniae, which is one of the most important identified contributors to the pathogen’s virulence. Similarities in the structural composition of polysaccharides included in licensed pneumococcal vaccines may result in cross-reactivity of immune response against closely related serotypes, including serotypes not included in the vaccine. Therefore, it is important to understand whether cross-reactive antibodies offer clinical protection against pneumococcal disease. This review explores available evidence of cross-reactivity and cross-protection associated with pneumococcal vaccines, the challenges associated with the assessment of cross-reactivity and cross-protection, and implications for vaccine design and development.

Globally, Streptococcus pneumoniae is a leading cause of vaccine-preventable morbidity and mortality in infants and children. In recent decades, large-scale pediatric immunization programs have substantially reduced the incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease. Despite this, residual vaccine-type pneumococcal disease remains in the form of vaccine breakthrough and vaccine failure. This targeted literature review aims to discuss aspects of vaccine breakthrough and failure in infants and children, including disease epidemiology, clinical presentation, risk factors, vaccination schedules, vaccine serotypes, correlates of protection, comorbidities, disease surveillance, and potential implications for future vaccine development.