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In the context of climate change and depletion of natural resources, meeting the growing demand for animal feed and human food through sufficient, nutritious, safe, and affordable sources of protein is becoming a priority. The use of Hermetia illucens , the black soldier fly (BSF), has emerged as a strategy to enhance the circularity of the agri-food chain, but its microbiological safety remains a concern. The aim of the present study was to systematically review available data on the microbiological quality of BSF and to investigate the impact of using four different rearing substrates including classic options allowed by the EU regulation (cereals, fruits, vegetables) and options not allowed by EU regulations regarding vegetable agri-food (co-products, food at shelf life, and meat). A total of 13 studies were collected and synthesized, including 910 sample results, while 102 new sample results were collected from the present experiments in three farms. Both datasets combined revealed a high level of contamination of larvae, potentially transmitted through the substrate. The main pathogenic bacteria identified were Bacillus cereus , Clostridium perfringens , Cronobacter spp., Escherichia coli , Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus coagulase-positive, while Campylobacter spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were not detected. Any of these four substrates were excluded for their use in insect rearing; however, safety concerns were confirmed and must be managed by the operators of the sector using microbial inactivation treatment after the harvest of the larvae in order to propose safe products for the market. The results obtained will guide the definition of the control criteria and optimize the following manufacturing steps.

Clostridium botulinum produces Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), causing a rare but potentially deadly type of food poisoning called foodborne botulism. This review aims to provide information on the bacterium, spores, toxins, and botulisms, and describe the use of physical treatments (e.g., heating, pressure, irradiation, and other emerging technologies) to control this biological hazard in food. As the spores of this bacterium can resist various harsh environmental conditions, such as high temperatures, the thermal inactivation of 12-log of C. botulinum type A spores remains the standard for the commercial sterilization of food products. However, recent advancements in non-thermal physical treatments present an alternative to thermal sterilization with some limitations. Low- (<2 kGy) and medium (3-5 kGy)-dose ionizing irradiations are effective for a log reduction of vegetative cells and spores, respectively; however, very high doses (>10 kGy) are required to inactivate BoNTs. High-pressure processing (HPP), even at 1.5 GPa, does not inactivate the spores and requires heat combination to achieve its goal. Other emerging technologies have also shown some promise against vegetative cells and spores; however, their application to C. botulinum is very limited. Various factors related to bacteria (e.g., vegetative stage, growth conditions, injury status, type of bacteria, etc.) food matrix (e.g., compositions, state, pH, temperature, aw, etc.), and the method (e.g., power, energy, frequency, distance from the source to target, etc.) influence the efficacy of these treatments against C. botulinum . Moreover, the mode of action of different physical technologies is different, which provides an opportunity to combine different physical treatment methods in order to achieve additive and/or synergistic effects. This review is intended to guide the decision-makers, researchers, and educators in using physical treatments to control C. botulinum hazards.

Tenebrio molitor , the first edible insect approved as a novel food in the EU, is a promising candidate for alternative protein sources, implementing circular and sustainable production systems. This study aims to determine the microbiological quality and physicochemical properties of mealworm powders obtained by four different processing pathways. Contents of dry matter, protein, fat, ash, water activity (aw) and a range of microbial counts were measured and analyzed by one-way ANOVA with Tukey's test. Results showed small differences in the proximate composition of the powder samples (protein 55.62-57.90% and fat 23.63-28.21% of dry matter, DM), except for the one that underwent a defatting step (protein 70.04% and fat 16.84%), p < 0.05. A level of water activity of less than 0.2 was reached for all pathways. Fresh mealworm samples had high total aerobic counts (8.4 log CFU/g) but were free of foodborne pathogens. Heat treatments applied during transformation were sufficient to kill vegetative cells (reduction of 2.8-5.1 log CFU/g) rather than bacterial endospores (reduction of 0.3-1.8 log CFU/g). Results were confirmed by predictive microbiology. This study validated the efficacy of a boiling step as critical control points (CCPs) of insect powder processing, providing primary data for the implementation of HACCP plans.

Foodborne microbial diseases have a significant impact on public health, leading to millions of human illnesses each year worldwide. Pork is one of the most consumed meat in Europe but may also be a major source of pathogens introduced all along the farm-to-fork chain. Several quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) have been developed to assess human health risks associated with pork consumption and to evaluate the efficiency of different risk reduction strategies. The present critical analysis aims to review pork QMRA. An exhaustive search was conducted following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) methodology. It resulted in identification of a collection of 2489 papers including 42 on QMRA, after screening. Among them, a total of 29 studies focused on Salmonella spp. with clear concern on impacts at the slaughterhouse, modeling the spreading of contaminations and growth at critical stages along with potential reductions. Along with strict compliance with good hygiene practices, several potential risk mitigation pathways were highlighted for each slaughterhouse step. The slaughterhouse has a key role to play to ensure food safety of pork-based products but consideration of the whole farm-to-fork chain is necessary to enable better control of bacteria. This review provides an analysis of pork meat QMRA, to facilitate their reuse, and identify gaps to guide future research activities.

Food of animal origin, especially meat products, represent the main vehicle of foodborne pathogens and so are implicated in foodborne outbreaks. Poultry meat is a widely consumed food in various forms, but it is also a reservoir of thermotolerant Campylobacter and Salmonella bacterial species. To assess human health risks associated with pathogenic bacteria in poultry meat, the use of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) has increased over the years as it is recognized to address complex food safety issues and is recommended by health authorities. The present project reviewed poultry meat QMRA, identified key steps of the farm-to-fork chain with significant impacts on food safety, highlighted current knowledge gaps, and provided risk mitigation advices. A PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)-based systematic analysis was carried out and enabled the collection of 4056 studies including 42 QMRA kept for analysis after screening. The latter emphasized Campylobacter spp. and Salmonella spp. contaminations during the consumer stage as the main concern. The role of consumer handling on cross-contamination and undercooking events were of major concern. Thus, proper hygiene and safety practices by consumers have been suggested as the main intervention and would need to be followed with regular surveys to assess behavior changes and reduce knowledge gaps.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAI) remain a burden in healthcare facilities, environmental surfaces being a potential reservoir for healthcare-associated pathogens. In this context, exploration of materials with potential antimicrobial activities represents a way forward for the future. Here, we explored the survival of four bacterial species commonly involved in HAI ( Acinetobacter baumannii , Enterococcus faecalis , Klebsiella pneumoniae , Staphylococcus aureus ), on oak versus three other materials (aluminum, polycarbonate, stainless steel). Twenty microliters of each bacterial suspension (approximatively 10 7 bacteria) were deposited on each material. Bacterial counts were measured by grinding and culturing on day 0, 1, 2, 6, 7 and 15. Analyses were performed in triplicate for each material and each time evaluated. It appeared that the bacteria viable count decreased rapidly on transversal and tangential oak compared with the other materials for all bacterial species. Furthermore, no difference was noticed between transversal and tangential oak. These results underline the potential for use of oak materials in healthcare facilities, a consideration that should be supported by further investigations.

Entomophagy has been part of human diets for a long time in a significant part of the world, but insects are considered to be a novel food everywhere else. It would appear to be a strategic alternative in the future of human diet to face the challenge of ensuring food security for a growing world population, using more environmentally sustainable production systems than those required for the rearing of other animals. Tenebrio molitor , called yellow mealworm, is one of the most interesting insect species in view of mass rearing, and can be processed into a powder that ensures a long shelf life for its use in many potential products. When considering insects as food or feed, it is necessary to guarantee their safety. Therefore, manufacturers must implement a Hazard Analysis Critical Control plan (HACCP), to limit risks for consumers' health. The aim of this case study was to develop a HACCP plan for Tenebrio molitor larvae powders for food in a risk-based approach to support their implementation in industry. Specific purposes were to identify related significant biological hazards and to assess the efficiency of different manufacturing process steps when used as Critical Control Points. Then, combinations of four different processes with four potential uses of powders by consumers in burger, protein shake, baby porridge, and biscuits were analyzed with regard to their safety.

The present investigation aimed to utilize a direct wood disc diffusion method to study the influence of plane of cutting, cutting method, sterilization method, and origin of tree on the antimicrobial activity of wood material. Six oak wood trees ( Quercus petraea ) were collected from 3 different locations in France. They were cut into 4 mm thick slices with either transverse (RT), tangential (LT) or radial (LR) faces. Round discs (diameter 9.95 ± 0.1 mm) were cut from the slices via a laser machine or a manual punch machine, and were sterilized with gamma irradiation (25 kGy) or autoclaving (121 °C). The antimicrobial activity of wood was tested using a direct diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus and Acinetobacter baumannii isolates. The zone of inhibition around the wooden disc was recorded following the recommendations used for antibiotics tests. The results showed that S. aureus was more susceptible than A. baumannii , to the chemicals that diffused from the wood. The transverse face discs exhibited higher antimicrobial activity. Samples that had been sterilized by autoclaving showed significantly ( p < 0.05) lower antimicrobial activity, whereas the cutting method and origin of tree did not influence the antimicrobial activity of wood material. Therefore, the choice of sterilization method and cutting planes must be taken into account while studying and interpreting the antibacterial properties of wood material.

Ionization radiations are used to ensure food safety and quality. This irradiation process uses ions of beta or gamma rays to inactivate or destroy the food spoilage pests, microorganisms and their toxins without significantly increasing the temperature of the treated product. Meanwhile, various intrinsic and extrinsic factors are involved in determining the efficacy of ionization irradiation against these organisms. Therefore, the dose of radiations is recommended according to the type of irradiation, substrate and microorganisms. However, controversies are surrounding the use of irradiations in the food industry due to a negative perception of irradiations. This manuscript described the use of ionization radiations to control the foodborne biological hazards and increase shelf life. Firstly, the characteristics and mode of action of irradiations were discussed. Secondly, the role of extrinsic and intrinsic factors influencing the radioresistance of biological hazards were elaborated. This literature review also detailed the differential effects of irradiations on different microorganisms and pests having a role in food safety and deterioration. Finally, the regulatory status and the consumer values along with the controversies surrounding the use of ionization irradiations in the food sector were explained.

Some wood species have antimicrobial properties, making them a better choice over inert surfaces in certain circumstances. However, the organic and porous nature of wood raises questions regarding the use of this material in hygienically important places. Therefore, it is reasonable to investigate the microbial survival and the antimicrobial potential of wood via a variety of methods. Based on the available literature, this review classifies previously used methods into two broad categories: one category tests wood material by direct bacterial contact, and the other tests the action of molecules previously extracted from wood on bacteria and fungi. This article discusses the suitability of these methods to wood materials and exposes knowledge gaps that can be used to guide future research. This information is intended to help the researchers and field experts to select suitable methods for testing the hygienic safety and antimicrobial properties of wood materials.